In vitro fermentation of chitosan derivatives by mixed cultures of human faecal bacteria

Stirred, pH controlled batch cultures were carried out with faecal inocula and various chitosans to investigate the fermentation of chitosan derivatives by the human gut flora. Changes in bacterial levels and short chain fatty acids were measured over time. Low, medium and high molecular weight chitosan caused a decrease in bacteroides, bifidobacteria, clostridia and lactobacilli. A similar pattern was seen with chitosan oligosaccharide (COS). Butyrate levels also decreased. A three-stage fermentation model of the human colon was used for investigation of the metabolism of COS. In a region representing the proximal colon, clostridia decreased while lactobacilli increased. In the region representing the transverse colon, bacteroides and clostridia increased. Distally a small increase in bacteroides occurred. Butyrate levels increased. Under the highly competitive conditions of the human colon, many members of the microflora, are unable to compete for chitosans of low, medium or high molecular weight. COS were more easily utilised and when added to an in vitro colonic model led to increased production of butyrate, but some populations of potentially detrimental bacteria also increased. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Biodiversity of human faecal bacteria isolated from phytic acid enriched chemostat fermenters

Background: Myo-inositol hexaphosphate (IP6) or phytic acid is found mostly in cereals and legumes and is thought to possess anti-carcinogenic properties. Aim: To isolate and identify faecal bacteria capable of phytic acid metabolism and to assess the effectiveness of prebiotics (dietary oligosaccharides, metabolised by selective colonic bacteria) in preserving the integrity of phytic acid. Methods: Faecal samples from three volunteers were used in continuous culture experiments under varying conditions of pH, substrate concentration and dilution rates, seventy three different isolates cultured at steady state were then screened for phytic acid metabolism and identified through partial sequencing of their 16S rRNA genes (16S ribosomal ribonucleic acid). Utilisation of phytic acid was also assessed in a continuous culture system enriched with prebiotic fructooligosaccharides (FOS). Results: Bacteroides spp., Clostridium spp. and facultatively anaerobic bacteria generally appeared to maintain viable counts in the presence of phytic acid. Bifidobacterium spp. and Lactobacillus spp. appeared less able to maintain viable counts in the presence of phytic acid. These results were confirmed by an increase in viable counts of Bacteroides spp., Clostridium spp. and a decrease in viable counts of Bifidobacterium spp. and Lactobacillus spp. once phytic acid was introduced to a FOS enriched continuous culture. Conclusions: The phytate metabolising biodiversity from the human large intestine does not appear to encompass major bacterial genera associated with beneficial or benign health effects (e.g. Lactobacillus spp. and Bifidobacterium spp).

Metabolism of the soyabean isoflavone glycoside genistin in vitro by human gut bacteria and the effect of prebiotics

The isoflavone genistein is found predominantly in soyabeans and is thought to possess various potent biological properties, including anticarcinogenic effects. Studies have shown that genistein is extensively degraded by the human gut microflora, presumably with a loss of its anti-carcinogenic action. The aim of the present study was to investigate the potential of a prebiotic to divert bacterial metabolism away from genistein breakdown: this may be of benefit to the host. Faecal samples were obtained from healthy volunteers and fermented in the presence of a source of soyabean isoflavones (Novasoy(TM) (10 g/l); ADM Neutraceuticals, Erith, Kent, UK). Bacterial genera of the human gut were enumerated using selective agars and genistein was quantified by HPLC. The experiment was repeated with the addition of glucose (10 g/l) or fructo-oligosaccharide (10 g/l; FOS) to the fermentation medium. The results showed most notably that counts of Bifidobacterium spp. and Lactobacillus spp. were significantly increased (P<0.05 and P<0.01 respectively) under steady-state conditions in the presence of FOS. Counts of Bacteroides spp. and Clostridium spp. were, however, both significantly reduced (P<0.05) during the fermentation. A decline in genistein concentration by about 52 and 56% over the 120h culture period was observed with the addition of glucose or FOS to the basal medium (P<0.01), compared with about 91% loss of genistein in the vessels containing Novasoy(TM) (ADM Neutraceuticals) only. Similar trends were obtained using a three-stage chemostat (gut model), in which once again the degradation of genistein was about 22% in vessel one, about 24% in vessel two and about 26% in vessel three in the presence of FOS, compared with a degradation of genistein of about 67% in vessel one, about 95% in vessel two and about 93% in vessel three in the gut model containing Novasoy(TM) (ADM Neutraceuticals) only. The present study has shown that the addition of excess substrate appeared to preserve genistein in vitro. In particular, the use of FOS not only augmented this effect, but also conferred an additional benefit in selectively increasing numbers of purportedly beneficial bacteria such as bifidobacteria and lactobacilli.

Selective fermentation of gentiobiose-derived oligosaccharides by human gut bacteria and influence of molecular weight

Gentiooligosaccharides and alternansucrase gentiobiose acceptor products were fractionated by their degree of polymerization (DP) on a Bio-Gel P2 column. Fractions were characterized by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectroscopy, and incubated with human faecal bacteria under anaerobic conditions at 37 degrees C. The growth of predominant gut bacteria on the oligosaccharides was evaluated by fluorescence in situ hybridization and a prebiotic index (PI) was calculated. Lower DP gentiooligosaccharides (DP2-3) showed the highest selectivity (PI of 4.89 and 3.40, respectively), whereas DP4-5 alternansucrase gentiobiose acceptor products generated the greatest values (PI of 5.87). The production of short-chain fatty acids was also determined during the time course of the reactions. The mixture of DP6-10 alternansucrase gentiobiose acceptor products generated the highest levels of butyric acid but the lowest levels of lactic acid. Generally, for similar molecular weights, alternansucrase gentiobiose acceptor products gave higher PI values than gentiooligosaccharides.

Influence of glycosidic linkages and molecular weight on the fermentation of maltose-based oligosaccharides by human gut bacteria

A structure-function study was carried out to increase knowledge of how glycosidic linkages and molecular weights of carbohydrates contribute toward the selectivity of fermentation by gut bacteria. Oligosaccharides with maltose as the common carbohydrate source were used. Potentially prebiotic alternansucrase and dextransucrase maltose acceptor products were synthesized and separated into different molecular weights using a Bio-gel P2 column. These fractions were characterized by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight. Nonprebiotic maltooligosaccharides with degrees of polymerization (DP) from three to seven were commercially obtained for comparison. Growth selectivity of fecal bacteria on these oligosaccharides was studied using an anaerobic in vitro fermentation method. In general, carbohydrates of DP3 showed the highest selectivity towards bifidobacteria; however, oligosaccharides with a higher molecular weight (DP6-DP7) also resulted in a selective fermentation. Oligosaccharides with DPs above seven did not promote the growth of "beneficial" bacteria. The knowledge of how specific structures modify the gut microflora could help to find new prebiotic oligosaccharides.

Probiotics for the developing world

Every minute of every day more and more children die of diarrheal diseases and women, and girls become infected by HIV An estimated 7,000 women become infected each day. While many valiant efforts are being made to address these issues, until now they have proved to be markedly ineffective. The notion that lactic acid bacteria, formulated into food or dietary supplements, could have a role to play in slowing the morbidity and mortality associated with HIV/AIDS and gastroenteritis, is built upon sound clinical findings and scientific investigations, yet no international efforts have been placed in this approach, to date. We hereby summarize the reasons why such efforts should be made, provide an example of one model being set up in sub-Saharan Africa, and challenge the international community to consider the potential benefits of probiotics, especially for communities not reached by governmental and nongovernmental agencies.

Bacteria in the gut: friends and foes and how to alter the balance

The activities of the bacteria resident in the colon of companion animals can have an impact upon the health of the host. Our understanding of this microbial ecosystem is presently increasing due to the development of DNA-based microbiological tools that allow identification and enumeration of nonculturable microorganisms. These techniques are changing our view of the bacteria that live in the gut, and they are facilitating dietary-intervention approaches to modulate the colonic ecosystem. This is generally achieved by the feeding of either live bacteria (probiotics) or nondigestible oligosaccharides (prebiotics) that selectively feed the indigenous probiotics. Feeding studies with a Lactobacillus acidophilus probiotic have shown positive effects on carriage of Clostridium spp. in canines and on recovery from Campylobacter spp. infection in felines. Immune function was improved in both species. Prebiotic feeding studies with lactosucrose and fructo-oligosaccharides in both cats and dogs have shown positive effects on the microflora balance. Recently synbiotic forms (a probiotic together with a prebiotic) targeted at canines have been developed that show promise as dietary-intervention tools.

Polydextrose, lactitol, and fructo-oligosaccharide fermentation by colonic bacteria in a three-stage continuous culture system

In vitro fermentations were carried out by using a model of the human colon to simulate microbial activities of lower gut bacteria. Bacterial populations (and their metabolic products) were evaluated under the effects of various fermentable substrates. Carbohydrates tested were polydextrose, lactitol, and fructo-oligosaccharide (FOS). Bacterial groups of interest were evaluated by fluorescence in situ hybridization as well as by species-specific PCR to determine bifidobacterial species and percent-G+C profiling of the bacterial communities present. Short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) produced during the fermentations were also evaluated. Polydextrose had a stimulatory effect upon colonic bifidobacteria at concentrations of 1 and 2% (using a single and pooled human fecal inoculum, respectively). The bifidogenic effect was sustained throughout all three vessels of the in vitro system (P = 0.01 seen in vessel 3), as corroborated by the bacterial community profile revealed by %G+C analysis. This substrate supported a wide variety of bifidobacteria and was the only substrate where Bifidobacterium infantis was detected. The fermentation of lactitol had a deleterious effect on both bifidobacterial and bacteroides populations (P = 0.01) and decreased total cell numbers. SCFA production was stimulated, however, particularly butyrate (beneficial for host colonocytes). FOS also had a stimulatory effect upon bifidobacterial and lactobacilli populations that used a single inoculum (P = 0.01 for all vessels) as well as a bifidogenic effect in vessels 2 and 3 (P = 0.01) when a pooled inoculum was used. A decrease in bifidobacteria throughout the model was reflected in the percent-G+C profiles.

Effect of pH and dose on the growth of gut bacteria on prebiotic carbohydrates in vitro

The effect of pH and substrate dose on the fermentation profile of a number of commercial prebiotics was analysed in triplicate using stirred, pH and temperature controlled anaerobic batch culture fermentations, inoculated with a fresh faecal slurry from one of three healthy volunteers. Bacterial numbers were enumerated using fluorescence in situ hybridisation. The commercial prebiotics investigated were fructooligosaccharides (FOS), inulin, galactooligosaccharides (GOS), isomaltooligosaccharides (IMO) and lactulose. Two pH values were investigated, i.e. pH 6 and 6.8. Doses of 1% and 2% (w/v) were investigated, equivalent to approximately 4 and 8 g per day, respectively, in an adult diet. It was found that both pH and dose altered the bacterial composition. It was observed that FOS and inulin demonstrated the greatest bifidogenic effect at pH 6.8 and 1% (w/v) carbohydrate, whereas GOS, IMO and lactulose demonstrated their greatest bifidogenic effect at pH 6 and 2% (w/v) carbohydrate. From this we can conclude that various prebiotics demonstrate differing bifidogenic effects at different conditions in vitro. (C) 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Predicting the thermal inactivation of bacteria in a solid matrix: simulation studies on the relative effects of microbial thermal resistance parameters and process conditions

A combined mathematical model for predicting heat penetration and microbial inactivation in a solid body heated by conduction was tested experimentally by inoculating agar cylinders with Salmonella typhimurium or Enterococcus faecium and heating in a water bath. Regions of growth where bacteria had survived after heating were measured by image analysis and compared with model predictions. Visualisation of the regions of growth was improved by incorporating chromogenic metabolic indicators into the agar. Preliminary tests established that the model performed satisfactorily with both test organisms and with cylinders of different diameter. The model was then used in simulation studies in which the parameters D, z, inoculum size, cylinder diameter and heating temperature were systematically varied. These simulations showed that the biological variables D, z and inoculum size had a relatively small effect on the time needed to eliminate bacteria at the cylinder axis in comparison with the physical variables heating temperature and cylinder diameter, which had a much greater relative effect. (c) 2005 Elsevier B.V All rights reserved.

Molecular identification and anti-pathogenic activities of putative probiotic bacteria isolated from faeces of healthy elderly individuals

One hundred and nine lactic acid bacterial strains (56 bifidobacteria-like and 53 lactobacilli-like) were isolated from faecal samples donated by healthy elderly individuals (>65 years old). Isolates were identified to species level by phenotypic analysis (by API) and by 16S rDNA sequencing. Eleven species of Lactobacillus and six species of Bifidobacterium were identified. The most frequently isolated lactobacillus was L. fermentum and the most frequently isolated bifidobacterium was closely related to B. infantis by 16S rDNA sequence alignment. The isolates were characterized for their antimicrobial activity against Clostridium difficile, enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC), verocytotoxigenic E. coli (VTEC) and Campylobacter jejuni. The lactobacilli displayed variations in their antimicrobial activity with few strains showing inhibitory activity against all pathogens. The bifidobacteria displayed higher levels of inhibitory activity against C. jejuni and Cl. difficile than against the E. coli strains. Keywords: Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, elderly, gastrointestinal microbiota, inhibition, Clostridium difficile, enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC), verocytotoxigenic E. coli (VTEC), Campylobacter jejuni.

In vitro fermentation of oat bran obtained by debranning with a mixed culture of human fecal bacteria

The prebiotic potential of oat samples was investigated by in vitro shaker-flask anaerobic fermentations with human fecal cultures. The oat bran fraction was obtained by debranning and was compared with other carbon sources such as whole oat flour, glucose, and fructo-oligosaccharide. The oat bran fraction showed a decrease in culturable anaerobes and clostridia and an increase in bifidobacteria and lactobacilli populations. A similar pattern was observed in fructo-oligosaccharide. Butyrate production was higher in oat bran compared to glucose and similar to that in fructo-oligosaccharide. Production of propionate was higher in the two oat media than in fructo-oligosaccharide and glucose, which can be used as energy source by the liver. This study suggests that the oat bran fraction obtained by debranning is digested by the gut ecosystem and increases the population of beneficial bacteria in the indigenous gut microbiota. This medium also provides an energy source preferred by colonocytes when it is metabolized by the gut flora.

The incidence of oral Gram-negative bacteria in patients with Parkinson's disease

Background: Parkinson's disease is a common neurodegenerative disorder that affects an increasing number of older people every year. Dysphagia is not only a common feature, but one that results in poor nutrition and an increased risk of bronchopneumonia. Previous work has suggested that the oral flora is altered in patients with oral pathology. Methods: Fifty patients were assessed to quantify the incidence of oral Gram-negative bacteria. Results: Sixteen of the patients with Parkinson's disease were found to have six different Gram-negative bacilli in their oral cavities. The 20 different Gram-negative bacteria present were Escherichia coli (n=7), Klebsiella spp. (n=3), Kluyvera spp. (n=3), Serratia spp. (n=3), Proteus spp. (n=2) and Enterobacter spp. (n=2). We found that the oral cavity of 16 (32%) of the patients with Parkinson's disease was abnormally colonised with Gram-negative bacteria and that Gram-negative bacteria were more likely to occur in those patients in whom oromuscular dysfunction was present (88% vs. 21%; p<0.05). Conclusion: Further work is required to determine the association between oral flora and the pathogenic organisms found in aspiration pneumonia as well as work on innovative treatments to reduce oral Gram-negative bacteria in those patients at particular risk of aspiration pneumonia.

When we eat, which bacteria should we be feeding?

Diet therapy utilizing probiotics and prebiotics may help treat many common gastrointestinal complaints. From birth to about 2 years of age the human digestive tract changes from sterile to a complex ecosystem with at least 500 bacterial species, most of these are benign and even necessary, however, pathogenic species also colonize the digestive tract. The idea is that prebiotics and probiotics can be used to displace and neutralise these pathogens.

Corrosion by sulfate reducing bacteria that utilize nitrate

16S rRNA gene sequencing was used to identify a sulfate-reducing bacterium (SRB) from a Danish North Sea oilfield water injection system. This species was cultivated, purified and subsequently identified as being >97% similar to Desulfovibrio gracilis. Like some other Desulfovibrio species this SRB, strain OP102, could reduce nitrate as an electron acceptor and produce ammonia in the absence of sulfate. In addition, in the presence of sulfate, when nitrate was dosed at 100 mg/l it was again reduced by the bacterium, with some ammonium production. Therefore, this mechanism could be important in oilfield systems where nitrate is applied to prevent sulfide generation by SRB which leads to reservoir souring. In static tests the influence of this Desulfovibrio on corrosion was assessed using carbon steel coupons, in the presence of sulfate and in the presence of sulfate with 100 mg/l nitrate. Corrosion rates were less than 1.5 mpy when coupons were incubated in the same water, with sulfate and with nitrate. Furthermore, the occurrence of pitting corrosion was fairly low under all circumstances.