Phenotypic and genotypic features of Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans isolated from patients with periodontal disease

Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans is strongly implicated in the pathogenesis of periodontitis. In this study, the phenotypic and genotypic features of A. actinomycetemcomitans and the presence of genes involved in toxicity were determined. Sixty-five patients with periodontal pocket and 48 healthy subjects were evaluated. Biotyping, adherence and invasion, neuraminidase and biofilm production, presence of capsule and fimbria, as well as the presence of flp-1, apaH, ltx, and cdt genes were determined. Biotype II was the most prevalent. Sixty-six strains were adherent and 33 of them were able to invade KB cells. Sixty strains produced neuraminidase, and 55 strains biofilms. Strains showed capsule but not fimbriae. Forty-six strains were cytotoxic, and most strains harbored the apaH and flp-1 genes. LTX promoter and the ltxA gene were observed in all strains from periodontal patients. The cdtA gene was observed in 50 (71.4%) strains, cdtB in 48 (68.6%) strains, cdtC in 60 (85.7%), and cdtABC in 40 (57.1%) strains. The presence of A. actinomycetemcomitans harboring the cdtC gene from healthy subjects may represent a transitory microorganism in the oral microbiota. More studies are necessary to understand the real role of this microorganism in the pathogenesis of periodontal disease

Mesh Generation for Isogeometric Analysis with T-spline

[EN]The application of the Isogeometric Analysis (IA) with T-splines [1] demands a partition of the parametric space, C, in a tiling containing T-junctions denominated T-mesh. The T-splines are used both for the geometric modelization of the physical domain, D, and the basis of the numerical approximation. They have the advantage over the NURBS of allowing local refinement. In this work we propose a procedure to construct T-spline representations of complex domains in order to be applied to the resolution of elliptic PDE with IA. In precedent works [2, 3] we accomplished this task by using a tetrahedral parametrization…

Mitochondrial dysfunction in a cell model of thyroid oncocytoma

The role of mitochondrial dysfunction in cancer has long been a subject of great interest. In this study, such dysfunction has been examined with regards to thyroid oncocytoma, a rare form of cancer, accounting for less than 5% of all thyroid cancers. A peculiar characteristic of thyroid oncocytic cells is the presence of an abnormally large number of mitochondria in the cytoplasm. Such mitochondrial hyperplasia has also been observed in cells derived from patients suffering from mitochondrial encephalomyopathies, where mutations in the mitochondrial DNA(mtDNA) encoding the respiratory complexes result in oxidative phosphorylation dysfunction. An increase in the number of mitochondria occurs in the latter in order to compensate for the respiratory deficiency. This fact spurred the investigation into the presence of analogous mutations in thyroid oncocytic cells. In this study, the only available cell model of thyroid oncocytoma was utilised, the XTC-1 cell line, established from an oncocytic thyroid metastasis to the breast. In order to assess the energetic efficiency of these cells, they were incubated in a medium lacking glucose and supplemented instead with galactose. When subjected to such conditions, glycolysis is effectively inhibited and the cells are forced to use the mitochondria for energy production. Cell viability experiments revealed that XTC-1 cells were unable to survive in galactose medium. This was in marked contrast to the TPC-1 control cell line, a thyroid tumour cell line which does not display the oncocytic phenotype. In agreement with these findings, subsequent experiments assessing the levels of cellular ATP over incubation time in galactose medium, showed a drastic and continual decrease in ATP levels only in the XTC-1 cell line. Furthermore, experiments on digitonin-permeabilised cells revealed that the respiratory dysfunction in the latter was due to a defect in complex I of the respiratory chain. Subsequent experiments using cybrids demonstrated that this defect could be attributed to the mitochondrially-encoded subunits of complex I as opposed to the nuclearencoded subunits. Confirmation came with mtDNA sequencing, which detected the presence of a novel mutation in the ND1 subunit of complex I. In addition, a mutation in the cytochrome b subunit of complex III of the respiratory chain was detected. The fact that XTC-1 cells are unable to survive when incubated in galactose medium is consistent with the fact that many cancers are largely dependent on glycolysis for energy production. Indeed, numerous studies have shown that glycolytic inhibitors are able to induce apoptosis in various cancer cell lines. Subsequent experiments were therefore performed in order to identify the mode of XTC-1 cell death when subjected to the metabolic stress imposed by the forced use of the mitochondria for energy production. Cell shrinkage and mitochondrial fragmentation were observed in the dying cells, which would indicate an apoptotic type of cell death. Analysis of additional parameters however revealed a lack of both DNA fragmentation and caspase activation, thus excluding a classical apoptotic type of cell death. Interestingly, cleavage of the actin component of the cytoskeleton was observed, implicating the action of proteases in this mode of cell demise. However, experiments employing protease inhibitors failed to identify the specific protease involved. It has been reported in the literature that overexpression of Bcl-2 is able to rescue cells presenting a respiratory deficiency. As the XTC-1 cell line is not only respiration-deficient but also exhibits a marked decrease in Bcl-2 expression, it is a perfect model with which to study the relationship between Bcl-2 and oxidative phosphorylation in respiratory-deficient cells. Contrary to the reported literature studies on various cell lines harbouring defects in the respiratory chain, Bcl-2 overexpression was not shown to increase cell survival or rescue the energetic dysfunction in XTC-1 cells. Interestingly however, it had a noticeable impact on cell adhesion and morphology. Whereas XTC-1 cells shrank and detached from the growth surface under conditions of metabolic stress, Bcl-2-overexpressing XTC-1 cells appeared much healthier and were up to 45% more adherent. The target of Bcl-2 in this setting appeared to be the actin cytoskeleton, as the cleavage observed in XTC-1 cells expressing only endogenous levels of Bcl-2, was inhibited in Bcl-2-overexpressing cells. Thus, although unable to rescue XTC-1 cells in terms of cell viability, Bcl-2 is somehow able to stabilise the cytoskeleton, resulting in modifications in cell morphology and adhesion. The mitochondrial respiratory deficiency observed in cancer cells is thought not only to cause an increased dependency on glycolysis but it is also thought to blunt cellular responses to anticancer agents. The effects of several therapeutic agents were thus assessed for their death-inducing ability in XTC-1 cells. Cell viability experiments clearly showed that the cells were more resistant to stimuli which generate reactive oxygen species (tert-butylhydroperoxide) and to mitochondrial calcium-mediated apoptotic stimuli (C6-ceramide), as opposed to stimuli inflicting DNA damage (cisplatin) and damage to protein kinases(staurosporine). Various studies in the literature have reported that the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-coactivator 1(PGC-1α), which plays a fundamental role in mitochondrial biogenesis, is also involved in protecting cells against apoptosis caused by the former two types of stimuli. In accordance with these observations, real-time PCR experiments showed that XTC-1 cells express higher mRNA levels of this coactivator than do the control cells, implicating its importance in drug resistance. In conclusion, this study has revealed that XTC-1 cells, like many cancer cell lines, are characterised by a reduced energetic efficiency due to mitochondrial dysfunction. Said dysfunction has been attributed to mutations in respiratory genes encoded by the mitochondrial genome. Although the mechanism of cell demise in conditions of metabolic stress is unclear, the potential of targeting thyroid oncocytic cancers using glycolytic inhibitors has been illustrated. In addition, the discovery of mtDNA mutations in XTC-1 cells has enabled the use of this cell line as a model with which to study the relationship between Bcl-2 overexpression and oxidative phosphorylation in cells harbouring mtDNA mutations and also to investigate the significance of such mutations in establishing resistance to apoptotic stimuli.

Controllo molecolare del differenziamento osteoblestico per applicazioni nel campo della rigenerazione del tessuto osseo

The aim of the study was to identify expression signatures unique for specific stages of osteoblast differentiation in order to improve our knowledge of the molecular mechanisms underlying bone repair and regeneration. We performed a microarray analysis on the whole transcriptome of human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) obtained from the femoral canal of patients undergoing hip replacement. By defining different time-points within the differentiation and mineralization phases of hMSCs, temporal gene expression changes were visualised. Importantly, the gene expression of adherent bone marrow mononuclear cells, being the undifferentiated progenitors of bone cells, was used as reference. In addition, only the cultures able to form mineral nodules at the final time-point were considered for the gene expression analyses. To obtain the genes of our interest, we only focused on genes: i) whose expression was significantly upregulated; ii) which are involved in pathways or biological processes relevant to proliferation, differentiation and functions of bone cells; iii) which changed considerably during the different steps of differentiation and/or mineralization. Among the 213 genes identified as differentially expressed by microarray analysis, we selected 65 molecular markers related to specific steps of osteogenic differentiation. These markers are grouped into various gene clusters according to their involvement in processes which play a key role in bone cell biology such as angiogenesis, ossification, cell communication, development and in pathways like TGF beta and Wnt signaling pathways. Taken together, these results allow us to monitor hMSC cultures and to distinguish between different stages of differentiation and mineralization. The signatures represent a useful tool to analyse a broad spectrum of functions of hMSCs cultured on scaffolds, especially when the constructs are conceived for releasing growth factors or other signals to promote bone regeneration. Morover, this work will enhance our understanding of bone development and will enable us to recognize molecular defects that compromise normal bone function as occurs in pathological conditions.

Untersuchungen zur Charakterisierung der Bystander-Effekte bei einer in vivo Therapie mit Suizidgenen

Untersuchungen zur Charakterisierung der Bystander-Effekte bei einer in vivo Therapie mit Suizidgenen Bei Tumoren eines syngenen Prostatakarzinoms der Ratte (Dunning R3327 AT-1), die zuvor ex vivo mit einem Fusionsgen aus Cytosin Deaminase und Tymidinkinase (AT-1/CDglyTK) transfiziert wurden, konnte durch Kombinationsbehandlung mit Ganciclovir (GCV) und 5-Fluorocytosin (5-FC) komplette Remission und Langzeitüberleben erzielt werden. Dagegen ergaben sich bei Applikation nur einer Pro-Drug lediglich lokale Tumorkontrollraten von 83% (GCV) und 57% (5-FC). Noch geringere therapeutische Effekte einer Kombinationstherapie mit GCV und 5-FC wurden beobachtet, wenn in Anlehnung an die klinische Situation der Anteil suizidgen-tragender Zellen in den Tumoren auf < 20% abgesenkt wurde. Molekularbiologische Analysen dieser Mischtumore zeigen eine Verminderung membranständiger Connexinproteine, welche für den interzellulären Transport phosphorylierter GCV-Metabolite über Gap-junctions erforderlich sind. Pharmakodynamische Untersuchungen mittels 19F-NMR belegen eine effiziente Metabolisierung von 5-FC zu 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) und den anschließenden Einbau der F-Nukleotide in die DNA. Dennoch sind die intrazellulären und sezernierten 5-FU Konzentrationen für eine Inaktivierung benachbarter Zellen im Sinne eines „lokalen-Bystander-Effektes“ nicht ausreichend. Bei gleichzeitiger Therapie von AT-1 und AT-1/CDglyTK Tumoren, kommt es nicht zur Regression des AT-1 Tumors und damit nicht zu einem „Distalen-Bystander-Effekt“. Dagegen führt die Induktion eines immunologischen Gedächtnisses zu deutlich verminderten Angehraten bei später injizierten AT-1 Tumoren. Die Suizidgen-Therapie ist ein erfolgversprechender Ansatz zur Behandlung maligner Erkrankungen, bei dem die lokalen und distalen Bystander-Effekte individueller Tumoren den therapeutischen Erfolg maßgeblich mitbestimmen.

Netzwerke von Nervenzellen auf strukturierten Oberflächen charakterisiert mit optischen und elektrophysiologischen Methoden

Das Wachstum von Nervenzellen und deren Verbindungen im zentralen und peripheren Nervensystem wird durch Proteine der extrazellulären Matrix kontrolliert. In dieser Arbeit wurde das Matrixprotein Laminin verwendet, um Netzwerke von Nervenzellen auf künstlichen Substraten in vitro zu erzeugen. Zu diesem Zweck wurden Lamininstrukturen mit Mikrostempeln aus Polydimethylsiloxan auf Zellkultursubstrate übertragen. Die Mikrostempel wurden in einem mehrstufigen Verfahren durch Abformung von photolithographisch hergestellten Masken angefertigt. Nach Vorversuchen mit neuronal differenzierten Zellen der Zellinien MzN und P19 zur Identifizierung geeigneter Abmessungen der Mikrotrukturen, gelang die Realisierung von Linien- und Gitternetzwerken sowie von komplexeren Schaltungen. Eine morphologische Charakterisierung der erzeugten Netzwerke erfolgte durch Phasenkontrast- und Fluoreszenzmikroskopie.Elektrophysiologische Messungen wurden mit der Patch-Clamp Technik an einer Kultur von Nervenzellen aus primär isolierten Hirnschnitten durchgeführt. Der Erhalt des intakten Zellverbundes im Hirnschnitt sollte Bedingungen möglichst nahe zur Situation in vivo schaffen, um die Bildung von Synapsen zu begünstigen. In Patch-Clamp Messungen an bis zu drei Neuronen gleichzeitig, gelang der Nachweis synaptischer Kopplung in strukturierten Netzwerken solcher Hirnschnitt-Kulturen. Sowohl funktionale chemische Synapsen, als auch Ohm'sche Kopplung über Gap-Junctions wurde beobachtet. Es wurde ein elektrisches Kopplungsmodell abgeleitet. Die Signalleitung in den Nervenfasern erfolgt demnach wie in einem zylindrischen, durch die Zellmembran von der Umgebung isolierten Kabel.

The grain-scale distribution and behaviour of melt and fluid in crystalline analogue systems

The production, segregation and migration of melt and aqueous fluids (henceforth called liquid) plays an important role for the transport of mass and energy within the mantle and the crust of the Earth. Many properties of large-scale liquid migration processes such as the permeability of a rock matrix or the initial segregation of newly formed liquid from the host-rock depends on the grain-scale distribution and behaviour of liquid. Although the general mechanisms of liquid distribution at the grain-scale are well understood, the influence of possibly important modifying processes such as static recrystallization, deformation, and chemical disequilibrium on the liquid distribution is not well constrained. For this thesis analogue experiments were used that allowed to investigate the interplay of these different mechanisms in-situ. In high-temperature environments where melts are produced, the grain-scale distribution in “equilibrium” is fully determined by the liquid fraction and the ratio between the solid-solid and the solid-liquid surface energy. The latter is commonly expressed as the dihedral or wetting angle between two grains and the liquid phase (Chapter 2). The interplay of this “equilibrium” liquid distribution with ongoing surface energy driven recrystallization is investigated in Chapter 4 and 5 with experiments using norcamphor plus ethanol liquid. Ethanol in contact with norcamphor forms a wetting angle of about 25°, which is similar to reported angles of rock-forming minerals in contact with silicate melt. The experiments in Chapter 4 show that previously reported disequilibrium features such as trapped liquid lenses, fully-wetted grain boundaries, and large liquid pockets can be explained by the interplay of the liquid with ongoing recrystallization. Closer inspection of dihedral angles in Chapter 5 reveals that the wetting angles are themselves modified by grain coarsening. Ongoing recrystallization constantly moves liquid-filled triple junctions, thereby altering the wetting angles dynamically as a function of the triple junction velocity. A polycrystalline aggregate will therefore always display a range of equilibrium and dynamic wetting angles at raised temperature, rather than a single wetting angle as previously thought. For the deformation experiments partially molten KNO3–LiNO3 experiments were used in addition to norcamphor–ethanol experiments (Chapter 6). Three deformation regimes were observed. At a high bulk liquid fraction >10 vol.% the aggregate deformed by compaction and granular flow. At a “moderate” liquid fraction, the aggregate deformed mainly by grain boundary sliding (GBS) that was localized into conjugate shear zones. At a low liquid fraction, the grains of the aggregate formed a supporting framework that deformed internally by crystal plastic deformation or diffusion creep. Liquid segregation was most efficient during framework deformation, while GBS lead to slow liquid segregation or even liquid dispersion in the deforming areas.

optomotor-blind and the horizontal and vertical system cells of the drosophila optic lobes

The horizontal and vertical system neurons (HS and VS cells) are part of a conserved set of lobula plate giant neurons (LPGNs) in the optic lobes of the adult brain. Structure and physiology of these cells are well known, predominantly from studies in larger Dipteran flies. Our knowledge about the ontogeny of these cells is limited and stems predominantly from laser ablation studies in larvae of the house fly Musca domestica. These studies suggested that the HS and VS cells stem from a single precursor, which, at least in Musca, has not yet divided in the second larval instar. A regulatory mutation (In(1)omb[H31]) in the Drosophila gene optomotor-blind (omb) leads to the selective loss of the adult HS and VS cells. This mutation causes a transient reduction in omb expression in what appears to be the entire optic lobe anlage (OLA) late in embryogenesis. Here, I have reinitiated the laser approach with the goal of identifying the presumptive embryonic HS/VS precursor cell in Drosophila. The usefulness of the laser ablation approach which has not been applied, so far, to cells lying deep within the Drosophila embryo, was first tested on two well defined embryonic sensory structures, the olfactory antenno-maxillary complex (AMC) and the light-sensitive Bolwing´s organ (BO). In the case of the AMC, the efficiency of the ablation procedure was demonstrated with a behavioral assay. When both AMCs were ablated, the response to an attractive odour (n-butanol) was clearly reduced. Interestingly, the larvae were not completely unresponsive but had a delayed response kinetics, indicating the existence of a second odour system. BO will be a useful test system for the selectivity of laser ablation when used at higher spatial resolution. An omb-Gal4 enhancer trap line was used to visualize the embryonic OLA by GFP fluorescence. This fluorescence allowed to guide the laser beam to the relevant structure within the embryo. The success of the ablations was monitored in the adult brain via the enhancer trap insertion A122 which selectively visualizes the HS and VS cell bodies. Due to their tight clustering, individual cells could not be identified in the embryonic OLA by conventional fluorescence microscopy. Nonetheless, systematic ablation of subdomains of the OLA allowed to localize the presumptive HS/VS precursor to a small area within the OLA, encompassing around 10 cells. Future studies at higher resolution should be able to identify the precursor as (an) individual cell(s). Most known lethal omb alleles do not complement the HS/VS phenotype of the In(1)omb[H31] allele. This is the expected behaviour of null alleles. Two lethal omb alleles that had been isolated previously by non-complementation of the omb hypomorphic allele bifid, have been reported, however, to complement In(1)omb[H31]. This report was based on low resolution paraffin histology of adult heads. Four mutations from this mutagenesis were characterized here in more detail (l(1)omb[11], l(1)omb[12], l(1)omb[13], and l(1)omb[15]). Using A122 as marker for the adult HS and VS cells, I could show, that only l(1)omb[11] can partly complement the HS/VS cell phenotype of In(1)omb[H31]. In order to identify the molecular lesions in these mutants, the exons and exon/intron junctions were sequenced in PCR-amplified material from heterozygous flies. Only in two mutants could the molecular cause for loss of omb function be identified: in l(1)omb[13]), a missense mutation causes the exchange of a highly conserved residue within the DNA-binding T-domain; in l(1)omb[15]), a nonsense mutation causes a C-terminal truncation. In the other two mutants apparently regulatory regions or not yet identified alternative exons are affected. To see whether mutant OMB protein in the missense mutant l(1)omb[13] is affected in DNA binding, electrophoretic shift assays on wildtype and mutant T-domains were performed. They revealed that the mutant no longer is able to bind the consensus palindromic T-box element.

Mechanics and dynamics of liposomes and cells studied by QCM and ECIS

The present thesis introduces a novel sensitive technique based on TSM resonators that provides quantitative information about the dynamic properties of biological cells and artificial lipid systems. In order to support and complement results obtained by this method supplementary measurements based on ECIS technique were carried out. The first part (chapters 3 and 4) deals with artificial lipid systems. In chapter 3 ECIS measurements were used to monitor the adsorption of giant unilamellar vesicles as well as their thermal fluctuations. From dynamic Monte Carlo Simulations the rate constant of vesicle adsorption was determined. Furthermore, analysis of fluctuation measurements reveals Brownian motion reflecting membrane undulations of the adherent liposomes. In chapter 4 QCM-based fluctuation measurements were applied to quantify nanoscopically small deformations of giant unilamellar vesicles with an external electrical field applied simultaneously. The response of liposomes to an external voltage with shape changes was monitored as a function of cholesterol content and adhesion force. In the second part (chapters 5 - 8) attention was given to cell motility. It was shown for the first time, that QCM can be applied to monitor the dynamics of living adherent cells in real time. QCM turned out to be a highly sensitive tool to detect the vertical motility of adherent cells with a time resolution in the millisecond regime. The response of cells to environmental changes such as temperature or osmotic stress could be quantified. Furthermore, the impact of cytochalasin D (inhibits actin polymerization) and taxol (facilitate polymerization of microtubules) as well as nocodazole (depolymerizes microtubules) on the dynamic properties of cells was scrutinized. Each drug provoked a significant reduction of the monitored cell shape fluctuations as expected from their biochemical potential. However, not only the abolition of fluctuations was observed but also an increase of motility due to integrin-induced transmembrane signals. These signals were activated by peptides containing the RGD sequence, which is known to be an integrin recognition motif. Ultimately, two pancreatic carcinoma cell lines, derived from the same original tumor, but known to possess different metastatic potential were studied. Different dynamic behavior of the two cell lines was observed which was attributed to cell-cell as well as cell-substrate interactions rather than motility. Thus one may envision that it might be possible to characterize the motility of different cell types as a function of many variables by this new highly sensitive technique based on TSM resonators. Finally the origin of the broad cell resonance was investigated. Improvement of the time resolution reveals the "real" frequency of cell shape fluctuations. Several broad resonances around 3-5 Hz, 15-17 Hz and 25-29 Hz were observed and that could unequivocally be assigned to biological activity of living cells. However, the kind of biological process that provokes this synchronized collective and periodic behavior of the cells remains to be elucidated.

Detailed analyses of mutations affecting structural formation of neuromuscular synapses in Drosophila melanogaster

The establishment of appropriate synapses between neurons and their target cells is an essential requirement for the formation of functional neuronal circuits. However, there is very little insight into the mechanisms underlying de novo formation of synapses and synaptic terminals. To identify novel genes involved in signalling or structural aspects of these processes I capitalised on possibilities provided by the model organism Drosophila. Thus, I contributed to a screen of a collection of third chromosomal mutations (Salzberg et al., 1997, Genetics 147, 1723ff.) selecting those mutant strains displaying structural defects of Drosophila neuromuscular junctions (NMJ). Carrying out genetic mapping experiments, I could assign 7 genes to interesting candidate mutations. All 7 mutations selected in this process cause size alterations of the embryonic NMJ, and one shows additional disturbances in the distribution of synaptic markers. 4 of these turned out to be transcription factors, not falling into the remit of this project. Only for one of these, the neuronal transcription factor Castor, I could show that its overgrown mutant NMJ phenotype is due to an increase in the number of motorneurons. The remaining genes encode a potential nitrophenylphosphatase, the translation initiation factor eIF4AIII, and a novel protein Waharan. Unfortunately, the nitophenylphosphatase gene was identified too late to carry out functional studies in the context of this project, but potential roles are discussed. eIF4AIII promotes NMJ size tempting to speculate that local translation at the NMJ is affected. I found that the synaptic scaffolding molecule Discs large (Dlg; orthologue of PSD95) is upregulated at eIF4AIII mutant NMJs. Targeted upregulation of Dlg can not mimic the eIF4AIII mutant phenotype, but dlg mutations suppress it. Therefore, Dlg function is required but not sufficient in this context. My findings are discussed in detail, pointing out future directions. The main focus of this work is the completely novel gene waharan (wah), an orthologue of the human gene KIAA1267 encoding a big brain protein of likewise unknown structure and function. My studies show that mutations or RNAi knock-down of wah cause NMJ overgrowth and reveal additional crucial roles in the patterning of wing imginal discs. RNAi studies suggest Wah to be required pre- and postsynaptically at NMJs and, consistently, wah is transcribed in the nervous system and muscles. Anti-Wah antisera were produced but could no longer be tested here, but preliminary studies with newly generated HA-targeted constructs suggest that Wah localises at NMJs and in neuronal nuclei. In silico analyses predict Wah to be structurally related to the Rad23-family of proteins, likely to target ubiquitinated proteins to the proteasome for degradation (Chen et al., 2002, Mol Cell Biol 22, 4902ff.) . In agreement with this prediction, poly-ubiquitinated proteins were found to accumulate in the absence of wah function, and wah-like mutant phenotypes were induced in NMJs and wing discs by knocking down proteasome function. My analysis further revealed that poly-ubiquitinated proteins are reduced in nuclei of wah mutant neurons and muscles, suggesting that Wah may play additional roles in ubiquitin-mediated nuclear import. Taken together, this study has uncovered a number of interesting candidate genes required for the de novo formation of Drosophila NMJs. 3 of these genes fell into the focus of this project. As discussed in detail, discovery of these genes and insights gained into their function have high potential to be translatable into vertebrate systems.

Knock down von Desmoglein 2 durch induzierbare Cre-spezifische Rekombination in der Maus

Desmosomen sind hoch organisierte adhäsive interzelluläre Verbindungen, die benachbarte Zellen durch Verankerung mit den Intermediärfilamenten des Zytoskeletts miteinander verknüpfen und so Zellen und Geweben Stabilität verleihen. Die Adhäsionsmoleküle der Desmosomen sind die desmosomalen Cadherine. Diese transmembranen Glykoproteine gehen im Interzellulärraum Verbindungen mit den desmosomalen Cadherinen der Nachbarzelle ein und sind im zytoplasmatischen Bereich Anheftungspunkte für weitere an der Desmosomenbildung beteiligte Proteine. Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Untersuchung der Rolle von Desmoglein 2 (Dsg 2), einem in allen Epithelien exprimierten desmosomalen Cadherin. Da der konstitutive knock out von Dsg 2 embryonal letal ist, wurde im Rahmen dieser Doktorarbeit eine transgene Maus generiert, in der die Reduktion von Dsg 2 temporär regulierbar war (konditionaler knock down). Dazu wurde der Mechanismus der RNA Interferenz genutzt, wodurch Sequenz-spezifische, post-transkriptionelle Regulation von Genen möglich ist. Unter Verwendung eines über Cre/lox-induzierbaren Vektors wurden transgene Mäuse generiert, welche nach Induktion Dsg 2 shRNA exprimieren, die in der Zelle in siRNA umgewandelt wird und zum Abbau der Dsg 2 mRNA führt. Durch Verpaarung der generierten Dsg 2 knock down Maus mit der über Tamoxifen induzierbaren Cre Deleter knock in Mauslinie Rosa26CreERT2 konnte deutliche Reduktion der Dsg 2 Proteinmenge in Leber, Darm und Herz erreicht werden. In Immunfärbungen der Leber wurde zudem eine reduzierte Desmosomenbildung durch Expression der Dsg 2 shRNA detektiert. Die für diese Versuche generierte und getestete Rosa26CreERT2 Mauslinie ermöglichte jedoch nicht in allen Zellen eines Gewebes die komplette Aktivierung der Cre Rekombinase und damit die Expression der shRNA. Dadurch entstanden mosaikartige Wildtyp/knock down-Gewebe, in denen noch ausreichend Desmosomen gebildet wurden, um die Gewebestabilität und -struktur zu erhalten. Für eine funktionale Untersuchung von Dsg 2 in Zusammenhang mit der chronisch entzündlichen Darmerkrankung Colitis ulcerosa wurden die Dsg 2 knock down Mäuse mit Darm-spezifischen, induzierbaren Cre Deleter Mäusen (VillinCreERT2) verpaart. Nach Aktivierung der Cre Rekombinase mittels Tamoxifen wurde in bitransgenen Tieren über Gabe von Azoxymethan (AOM) und Dextransodiumsulfat (DSS) Colitis ulcerosa induziert. Diese entzündliche Erkrankung des Darms ist mit der Induktion von Darmtumoren assoziiert. Bereits nach einmaliger Induktion mit AOM/DSS wurde in der ersten endoskopischen Untersuchung eine starke Entzündung des Darmgewebes und die Ausbildung von flächig wachsenden Tumoren in den Dsg 2 knock down Tieren hervorgerufen. Es ist anzunehmen, dass durch knock down von Dsg 2, und die damit verbundene verminderte Desmosomenbildung und Zelladhäsion, Infiltration von Bakterien durch die epitheliale Barriere des Darms möglich war, und so die Entzündungsreaktion in der Darmmukosa verstärkte. In Zusammenhang mit Verlust der epithelialen Festigkeit durch verringerte Zellkontakte kam es zur Hyperproliferation der Darmmukosa, die sich in Ausbildung von flächigen Tumoren äußerte. In weiteren Experimenten müssen nun die Tumore und das entzündete Gewebe der Colitis-induzierten Mäuse mittels Immunfluoreszenz untersucht werden, um Veränderungen in der Desmosomenformation in situ detektieren zu können. Des Weiteren sind Verpaarungen der Dsg 2 knock down Maus mit anderen Cre Rekombinase exprimierenden Mauslinien möglich, um den Einfluss von Dsg 2 auch in anderen Geweben, beispielsweise im Herzen, zu untersuchen. Die hier vorgelegte Arbeit zeigt also erstmalig den ursächlichen Zusammenhang zwischen Dsg 2 und dem Auftreten von Colitis-assoziierten Tumoren in einem konditionalen RNAi-vermittelten knock down Tiermodell. Die Etablierung dieser Maus ist somit das erste konditionale Mausmodell, welches die bei vielen Krebspatienten gefundenen flachzellig wachsenden Tumore in vivo rekapituliert. Vorausschauend kann man sagen, dass mit Hilfe des im Rahmen dieser Doktorarbeit entwickelten Tiermodells wichtige Erkenntnisses über die Pathologie von Darmtumoren erbracht werden können, die unser Verständnis der Colitis-induzierten Tumorentstehung verbessern.

Neuronal differentiation and epithelial integrity: the role of Drosophila Short stop

The nervous system is the most complex organ in animals and the ordered interconnection of neurons is an essential prerequisite for normal behaviour. Neuronal connectivity requires controlled neuronal growth and differentiation. Neuronal growth essentially depends on the actin and microtubule cytoskeleton, and it has become increasingly clear, that crosslinking of these cytoskeletal fractions is a crucial regulatory process. The Drosophila Spectraplakin family member Short stop (Shot) is such a crosslinker and is crucial for several aspects of neuronal growth. Shot comprises various domains: An actin binding domain, a plakin-like domain, a rod domain, calcium responsive EF-hand motifs, a microtubule binding Gas2 domain, a GSR motif and a C-terminal EB1aff domain. Amongst other phenotypes, shot mutant animals exhibit severely reduced dendrites and neuromuscular junctions, the subcellular compartmentalisation of the transmembrane protein Fasciclin2 is affected, but it is also crucially required in other tissues, for example for the integrity of tendon cells, specialised epidermal cells which anchor muscles to the body wall. Despite these striking phenotypes, Shot function is little understood, and especially we do not understand how it can carry out functions as diverse as those described above. To bridge this gap, I capitalised on the genetic possibilities of the model system Drosophila melanogaster and carried out a structure-function analysis in different neurodevelopmental contexts and in tendon cells. To this end, I used targeted gene expression of existing and newly generated Shot deletion constructs in Drosophila embryos and larvae, analyses of different shot mutant alleles, and transfection of Shot constructs into S2 cells or cultured fibroblasts. My analyses reveal that a part of the Shot C-terminus is not essential in the nervous system but in tendon cells where it stabilises microtubules. The precise molecular mechanism underlying this activity is not yet elucidated but, based on the findings presented here, I have developed three alternative testable hypothesis. Thus, either binding of the microtubule plus-end tracking molecule EB1 through an EB1aff domain, microtubulebundling through a GSR rich motif or a combination of both may explain a context-specific requirement of the Shot C-terminus for tendon cell integrity. Furthermore, I find that the calcium binding EF-hand motif in Shot is exclusively required for a subset of neuronal functions of Shot but not in the epidermal tendon cells. These findings pave the way for complementary studies studying the impact of [Ca2+] on Shot function. Besides these differential requirements of Shot domains I find, that most Shot domains are required in the nervous system and tendon cells alike. Thus the microtubule Gas2 domain shows no context specific requirements and is equally essential in all analysed cellular contexts. Furthermore, I could demonstrate a partial requirement of the large spectrin-repeat rod domain of Shot in neuronal and epidermal contexts. I demonstrate that this domain is partially required in processes involving growth and/or tissue stability but dispensable for cellular processes where no mechanical stress resistance is required. In addition, I demonstrate that the CH1 domain a part of the N-terminal actin binding domain of Shot is only partially required for all analysed contexts. Thus, I conclude that Shot domains are functioning different in various cellular environments. In addition my study lays the base for future projects, such as the elucidation of Shot function in growth cones. Given the high degree of conservation between Shot and its mammalian orthologues MACF1/ACF7 and BPAG1, I believe that the findings presented in this study will contribute to the general understanding of spectraplakins across species borders.

Funktionelle Analyse der beiden Zinkfinger-Homöodomänentranskriptionsfaktoren Zfh-1 und Zfh-2 während der Entwicklung des Nervensystems von Drosophila melanogaster

Diese Arbeit charakterisiert die Funktion und das Expressionmuster der beiden Zinkfinger-Homöodomänentranskriptionsfaktoren zfh1 und zfh2 von Drosophila melanogaster. Das zfh2 Gen wurde hierbei vor allem molekular charakterisiert. Es wurden eine Vielzahl möglicher Spleißformen identifiziert, welche das regulatorische Potential von Zfh2 enorm erweitern. Für Überexpressionsexperimente wurde zudem erstmalig die cDNA des längsten zfh2-Transkriptes kloniert. Durch Analysen an zfh1 Mutanten konnte gezeigt werden, dass zfh1 sowohl notwendig ist für die embryonale Entwicklung von Motoneuronen, als auch das larvale Wachstum motoneuronaler Endplatten reguliert. Wegen weit reichender pleiotroper Effekte, die zfh1 Funktionsverlustmutanten haben, war es notwendig, neben dem Einsatz hypomorpher Allele auf die Analyse genetischer Mosaike auszuweichen. Die als MARCM-Technik (Lee und Luo, 1999) bezeichnete Methode zur Erzeugung genetischer Mosaike wurde modifiziert um in dieser Arbeit erstmals für die Analyse mutanter larvaler Motoneurone eingesetzt werden zu können. Weitergehend konnte gezeigt werden, dass Zfh1 notwendig ist für die larvale Expression des Neuropeptides FMRFamid. Anhand von Sequenzvergleichen und durch Verwendung eines fmrfamid-Promoterkonstruktes (Benveniste et al., 1998) konnten Hinweise dafür gesammelt werden, dass die Zfh1-abhängige Regulation sehr wahrscheinlich direkter Natur ist. Bei fmrfamid handelt es sich somit um das erste identifizierte neurale Zielgen von Zfh1, an dem sich zudem modellhaft der molekulare Wirkmechanismus von Zfh1 erforschen lässt.

Produzione automatizzata per nastratura di componenti strutturali in materiale composito

Questa dissertazione tratterà l’argomento dello studio di metodi di progettazione e processi tecnologici innovativi per l’industrializzazione in medio-grande serie di componenti strutturali in materiale composito. L’interesse della ricerca verso questo ambito è suscitato dai notevoli vantaggi che l’utilizzo di materiali dall’alto rapporto prestazioni meccaniche/peso danno nella ricerca di elevate prestazioni in applicazioni sportive e diminuzione dei consumi ed emissioni inquinanti in mezzi di trasporto di grande serie. Lo studio di componenti in materiale composito è caratterizzato dalla peculiarità di non poter disgiungere la progettazione della geometria della parte da quella del materiale e del processo, ed in questo senso nella figura del progettista si vanno a riassumere sinergicamente competenze riguardanti i tre ambiti. Lo scopo di questo lavoro è la proposizione di una metodologia di progettazione e produzione di componenti strutturali che permetta l’utilizzazione ottimale della natura fibrosa del materiale composito sia dal punto di vista del trasferimento dei carichi tra diversi componenti, sia dal punto di vista del processo di laminazione che avviene per nastratura automatizzata. Lo studio è volto a mostrare in quali termini tale tecnologia sia potenzialmente in grado di superare i vincoli di forma ed i limiti di efficienza meccanica delle giunzioni tra le parti e di garantire maggiore produttività e costi inferiori rispetti ai diversi metodi di produzione che rappresentano oggi lo stato dell’arte dell’industrializzazione in medio-grande serie. Particolare attenzione verrà posta sull’utilizzo della tecnologia oggetto di studio per la produzione di telai automobilistici.

Konditionale Mutagenese von Desmoglein 2 in der Maus

Desmosomen sind hoch organisierte interzelluläre Verbindungen, die Zellverbänden eine mechanische Stabilität verleihen. Die Intermediärfilamentnetzwerke benachbarter Zellen werden mit Hilfe der desmosomalen Cadherine vom Desmoglein- und Desmocollin-Typ miteinander verknüpft. Diese Glykoproteine interagieren miteinander im Interzellularspalt zwischen benachbarten Zellen und stellen mit ihren zytoplasmatischen Domänen einen Ankerpunkt für desmosomale Brückenproteine dar, an welche wiederum die Proteine des Intermediärfilament-Zytoskeletts binden. Bei der Maus spielt das desmosomale Cadherin Desmoglein 2 (DSG2) bereits in frühen Stadien der Embryogenese eine entscheidende Rolle. Homozygote DSG2-Knockout-Mäuse sterben bereits vor der Implantation des Embryos ab. Im adulten Tier ist Dsg2 die am weitesten verbreitete Isoform, in Darm, Leber und Herzmuskel wird es zudem exklusiv exprimiert. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, die Bedeutung von Dsg2 in differenzierten Gewebeverbänden adulter Tiere zu untersuchen. Im Rahmen dieser Doktorarbeit wurden mehrere transgene Mauslinien hergestellt, in denen mit Hilfe des Cre/loxP-Systems eine Deletion im DSG2-Gen konditional und gewebsspezifisch induziert werden konnte. Dazu wurden zuerst zwei loxP-Sequenzen und eine mit zwei FRT-Stellen flankierte Neomyzinresistenzgen-Kassette in das DSG2-Gen von embryonalen Stammzellen durch homologe Rekombination eines Targeting-Konstrukts inseriert. Diese Zellen wurden in Blastozysten injiziert und Mauslinien hergestellt. Mit Hilfe der Flpe-Rekombinase wurde anschließend die Resistenzenzgen-Kassette entfernt. Diese Stämme wurden mit Mäusen verpaart, die eine induzierbare und gewebsspezifische Synthese der Cre-Rekombinase ermöglichen. Im Darmepithel und der Leber konnte eine gewebsspezifische Rekombination des DSG2-Gens induziert werden. Untersuchungen der DSG2-mRNA zeigten, dass die DSG2-Rekombination in der Darmschleimhaut nahezu vollständig erfolgte. Immunfluoreszenz-Analysen an Gewebsfragmenten induzierter Tiere mit Isotyp-spezifischen Antikörpern, die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit hergestellt worden waren, zeigten jedoch keine signifikanten Unterschiede der Desmosomenzahl und -verteilung. Daher wurden eGFP-Hybride des zu erwartenden mutierten Dsg2-Proteins in Zellen exprimiert und mit wildtypischem Dsg2 verglichen. Es konnte hinsichtlich der Verteilung und Morphologie der Desmosomen keine Unterschiede zwischen beiden Dsg2-Proteinen festgestellt werden. Der Dsg2-Mutante fehlen wichtige Proteinbereiche, die für die trans-Interaktion der extrazellulären Domäne verantwortlich sind, die Haupt-N-Glykosylierungsstelle, sowie eine der insgesamt vier Kalzium-Bindestellen. Dies sind Eigenschaften, von denen man bisher annahm, dass sie eine zentrale Bedeutung für die desmosomale Adhäsion besitzen. Weitere Experimente werden zeigen, inwieweit die hergestellte Dsg2-Mutante in „Stresssituationen“, wie sie z.B. bei Regenerationsvorgängen oder der Tumorgenese auftreten, zu veränderten adhäsiven Eigenschaften führt.