Biased gene conversion and GC-content evolution in the coding sequences of reptiles and vertebrates.

Mammalian and avian genomes are characterized by a substantial spatial heterogeneity of GC-content, which is often interpreted as reflecting the effect of local GC-biased gene conversion (gBGC), a meiotic repair bias that favors G and C over A and T alleles in high-recombining genomic regions. Surprisingly, the first fully sequenced nonavian sauropsid (i.e., reptile), the green anole Anolis carolinensis, revealed a highly homogeneous genomic GC-content landscape, suggesting the possibility that gBGC might not be at work in this lineage. Here, we analyze GC-content evolution at third-codon positions (GC3) in 44 vertebrates species, including eight newly sequenced transcriptomes, with a specific focus on nonavian sauropsids. We report that reptiles, including the green anole, have a genome-wide distribution of GC3 similar to that of mammals and birds, and we infer a strong GC3-heterogeneity to be already present in the tetrapod ancestor. We further show that the dynamic of coding sequence GC-content is largely governed by karyotypic features in vertebrates, notably in the green anole, in agreement with the gBGC hypothesis. The discrepancy between third-codon positions and noncoding DNA regarding GC-content dynamics in the green anole could not be explained by the activity of transposable elements or selection on codon usage. This analysis highlights the unique value of third-codon positions as an insertion/deletion-free marker of nucleotide substitution biases that ultimately affect the evolution of proteins.

Early white matter alterations in men predisposed to FXTAS revealed by MT imaging.

Introduction: The Fragile X - associated Tremor Ataxia Syndrome (FXTAS) is a recently described, and under-diagnosed, late onset (≈ 60y) neurodegenerative disorder affecting male carriers of a premutation in the Fragile X Mental Retardation 1 (FMR1) gene. The premutation is an CGG (Cytosine-Guanine-Guanine) expansion (55 to 200 CGG repeats) in the proximal region of the FMR1 gene. Patients with FXTAS primarily present with cerebellar ataxia and intention tremor. Neuroradiological features of FXTAS include prominent white matter disease in the periventricular, subcortical, middle cerebellar peduncles and deep white matter of the cerebellum on T2-weighted or FLAIR MR imaging (Jacquemmont 2007, Loesch 2007, Brunberg 2002, Cohen 2006). We hypothesize that a significant white matter alteration is present in younger individuals many years prior to clinical symptoms and/or the presence of visible lesions on conventional MR sequences and might be detectable by magnetization transfer (MT) imaging. Methods: Eleven asymptomatic premutation carriers (mean age = 55 years) and seven intra-familial controls participated to the study. A standardized neurological examination was performed on all participants and a neuropsychological evaluation was carried out before MR scanning performed on a 3T Siemens Trio. The protocol included a sagittal T1-weighted 3D gradient-echo sequence (MPRAGE, 160 slices, 1 mm^3 isotropic voxels) and a gradient-echo MTI (FA 30, TE 15, matrix size 256*256, pixel size 1*1 mm, 36 slices (thickness 2mm), MT pulse duration 7.68 ms, FA 500, frequency offset 1.5 kHz). MTI was performed by acquiring consecutively two set of images; first with and then without the MT saturation pulse. MT images were coregistered to the T1 acquisition. The MTR for every intracranial voxel was calculated as follows: MTR = (M0 - MS)/M0*100%, creating a MTR map for each subject. As first analysis, the whole white matter (WM) was used to mask the MTR image in order to create an histogram of the MTR distribution in the whole tissue class over the two groups examined. Then, for each subject, we performed a segmentation and parcellation of the brain by means of Freesurfer software, starting from the high resolution T1-weighted anatomical acquisition. Cortical parcellations was used to assign a label to the underlying white matter by the construction of a Voronoi diagram in the WM voxels of the MR volume based on distance to the nearest cortical parcellation label. This procedure allowed us to subdivide the cerebral WM in 78 ROIs according to the cortical parcellation (see example in Fig 1). The cerebellum, by the same procedure, was subdivided in 5 ROIs (2 per each hemisphere and one corresponding to the brainstem). For each subject, we calculated the mean value of MTR within each ROI and averaged over controls and patients. Significant differences between the two groups were tested using a two sample T-test (p<0.01). Results: Neurological examination showed that no patient met the clinical criteria of Fragile X Tremor and Ataxia Syndrome yet. Nonetheless, premutation carriers showed some subtle neurological signs of the disorder. In fact, premutation carriers showed a significant increase of tremor (CRST, T-test p=0.007) and increase of ataxia (ICARS, p=0.004) when compared to controls. The neuropsychological evaluation was normal in both groups. To obtain general characterizations of myelination for each subject and premutation carriers, we first computed the distribution of MTR values across the total white matter volume and averaged for each group. We tested the equality of the two distributions with the non parametric Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and we rejected the null-hypothesis at a p=0.03 (fig. 2). As expected, when comparing the asymptomatic permutation carriers with control subjects, the peak value and peak position of the MTR values within the whole WM were decreased and the width of the distribution curve was increased (p<0.01). These three changes point to an alteration of the global myelin status of the premutation carriers. Subsequently, to analyze the regional myelination and white matter integrity of the same group, we performed a ROI analysis of MTR data. The ROI-based analysis showed a decrease of mean MTR value in premutation carriers compared to controls in bilateral orbito-frontal and inferior frontal WM, entorhinal and cingulum regions and cerebellum (Fig 3). The detection of these differences in these regions failed with other conventional MR techniques. Conclusions: These preliminary data confirm that in premutation carriers, there are indeed alterations in "normal appearing white matter" (NAWM) and these alterations are visible with the MT technique. These results indicate that MT imaging may be a relevant approach to detect both global and local alterations within NAWM in "asymptomatic" carriers of premutations in the Fragile X Mental Retardation 1 (FMR1) gene. The sensitivity of MT in the detection of these alterations might point towards a specific physiopathological mechanism linked to an underlying myelin disorder. ROI-based analyses show that the frontal, parahippocampal and cerebellar regions are already significantly affected before the onset of symptoms. A larger sample will allow us to determine the minimum CGG expansion and age associated with these subclinical white matter alterations.

Promoting young people's social and emotional wellbeing in secondary education.

This guidance is for all those who have a responsibility for the social and emotional wellbeing of young people in secondary education. This includes teachers, support staff, governors and professionals with public health as part of their remit working in education (including the independent sector), local authorities, the NHS and the wider public, voluntary and community sectors. It focuses on interventions to support all young people aged 11-19 who attend any education establishment. Social and emotional wellbeing includes being happy, confident and in control, with the ability to solve and cope with problems and have good relationships with other people. The six recommendations cover: strategy, the key principles and conditions, working in partnership with parents, families and young people, the curriculum, and training and professional development. They include: â?¢ Secondary education establishments should have access to the specialist skills, advice and support they require. â?¢ Practitioners should have the knowledge, understanding and skills they need to develop young peopleâ?Ts social and emotional wellbeing. â?¢ Secondary education establishments should provide a safe environment which nurtures and encourages young peopleâ?Ts sense of self-worth, reduces the threat of bullying and violence and promotes positive behaviour. â?¢ Social and emotional skills education should be tailored to the developmental needs of young people.This resource was contributed by The National Documentation Centre on Drug Use.

Mental health services for homeless: patient profile and factors associated with suicide and homicide.

This study aimed to establish a profile of users of the mental health service for homeless in Cork, comparing this group with those attending a General Adult Service. The homeless group were significantly more likely to be male (89% v 46%), unemployed (96% v 68%), unmarried (98% v 75%) and under 65 (94% v 83%). Diagnostically, there was a significantly higher prevalence of schizophrenia (50% v 34%); personality disorder (37% v 11%) and substance dependence (74% v 19%) in the homeless service users. They were more likely to have a history of deliberate self harm (54% v 21%) and violence (48% v 10%). Severe mental illness has a high prevalence in the homeless population, with particularly high levels of factors associated with suicide and homicide. Poor compliance and complexity of illness lead to a requirement for significant input from multidisciplinary mental health teams members.This resource was contributed by The National Documentation Centre on Drug Use.

Screening for memory disorders, dementia and Alzheimer's disease

Dementia and its most common cause, Alzheimer’s disease, affect memory and occur predominantly in the elderly. Dementia has become increasingly prevalent in the world as health has improved and life expectancy has increased. However, the fields of clinical care have not responded adequately to develop diagnostic tools and treatments for this rapidly increasing group of conditions. While scientists search for cures for the numerous causes of dementia, improvement of diagnostic measures are needed now and should begin with screening elderly populations for memory difficulties and other cognitive problems. This review examines the history of cognitive screening tests, the numerous excellent tests that are currently available and ready for use, and directions and methods that will lead to progressively better evaluations.

Alzheimer's Disease Biomarkers, 2009

This report gives a comprehensive and up-to-date review of Alzheimer's disease biomarkers. Recent years have seen significant advances in this field. Whilst considerable effort has focused on A�_ and tau related markers, a substantial number of other molecules have been identified, that may offer new opportunities.This Report : Identifies 60 candidate Alzheimer's (AD) biomarkers and their associated studies. Of these, 49 are single species or single parameters, 7 are combinations or panels and 4 involve the measurement of two species or parameters or their ratios. These include proteins (n=34), genes (n=11), image-based parameters (n=7), small molecules (n=3), proteins + genes (n=2) and others (n=3). Of these, 30 (50%) relate to species identified in CSF and 19 (32%) were found in the blood. These candidate may be classified on the basis of their diagnostic utility, namely those which i) may allow AD to be detected when the disease has developed (48 of 75†= 64%), ii) may allow early detection of AD (18 of 75† = 24%) and iii) may allow AD to be predicted before the disease has begun to develop (9 of 75†= 12%). † Note: Of these, 11 were linked to two or more of these capabilities (e.g. allowed both early-stage detection as well as diagnosis after the disease has developed).Biomarkers: AD biomarkers identified in this report show significant diversity, however of the 60 described, 18 (30%) are associated with amyloid beta (A�_) and 9 (15%) relate to Tau. The remainder of the biomarkers (just over half) fall into a number of different groups. Of these, some are associated with other hypotheses on the pathogenesis of AD however the vast majority are individually unique and not obviously linked with other markers. Analysis and discussion presented in this report includes summaries of the studies and clinical trials that have lead to the identification of these markers. Where it has been calculated, diagnostic sensitivity, specificity and the capacity of these markers to differentiate patients with suspected AD from healthy controls and individuals believed to be suffering from other neurodegenerative conditions, have been indicated. These findings are discussed in relation to existing hypotheses on the pathogenesis of the AD and the current drug development pipeline. Many uncertainties remain in relation to the pathogenesis of AD, in diagnosing and treating the disease and many of the studies carried out to identify disease markers are at an early stage and will require confirmation through larger and longer investigations. Nevertheless, significant advances in the identification of AD biomarkers have now been made. Moreover, whilst much of the research on AD biomarkers has focused on amyloid and tau related species, it is evident that a substantial number of other species may provide important opportunities.Purpose of Report: To provide a comprehensive review of important and recently discovered candidate biomarkers of AD, in particular those with potential to reliably detect the disease or with utility in clinical development, drug repurposing, in studies of the pathogenesis and in monitoring drug response and the course of the disease. Other key goals were to identify markers that support current pipeline developments, indicate new potential drug targets or which advance understanding of the pathogenesis of this disease.Drug Repurposing: Studies of the pathogenesis of AD have identified aberrant changes in a number of other disease areas including inflammation, diabetes, oxidative stress, lipid metabolism and others. These findings have prompted studies to evaluate some existing approved drugs to treat AD. This report identifies studies of 9 established drug classes currently being investigated for potential repurposing.Alzheimer’s Disease: In 2005, the global prevalence of dementia was estimated at 25 million, with more than 4 million new cases occurring each year. It is also calculated that the number of people affected will double every 20 years, to 80 million by 2040, if a cure is not found. More than 50% of dementia cases are due to AD. Today, approximately 5 million individuals in the US suffer from AD, representing one in eight people over the age of 65. Direct and indirect costs of AD and other forms of dementia in the US are around $150 billion annually. Worldwide, costs for dementia care are estimated at $315 billion annually. Despite significant research into this debilitating and ultimately fatal disease, advances in the development of diagnostic tests for AD and moreover, effective treatments, remain elusive.Background: Alzheimer's disease is the most common cause of dementia, yet its clinical diagnosis remains uncertain until an eventual post-mortem histopathology examination is carried out. Currently, therapy for patients with Alzheimer disease only treats the symptoms; however, it is anticipated that new disease-modifying drugs will soon become available. The urgency for new and effective treatments for AD is matched by the need for new tests to detect and diagnose the condition. Uncertainties in the diagnosis of AD mean that the disease is often undiagnosed and under treated. Moreover, it is clear that clinical confirmation of AD, using cognitive tests, can only be made after substantial neuronal cell loss has occurred; a process that may have taken place over many years. Poor response to current therapies may therefore, in part, reflect the fact that such treatments are generally commenced only after neuronal damage has occurred. The absence of tests to detect or diagnose presymptomatic AD also means that there is no standard that can be applied to validate experimental findings (e.g. in drug discovery) without performing lengthy studies, and eventual confirmation by autopsy.These limitations are focusing considerable effort on the identification of biomarkers that advance understanding of the pathogenesis of AD and how the disease can be diagnosed in its early stages and treated. It is hoped that developments in these areas will help physicians to detect AD and guide therapy before the first signs of neuronal damage appears. The last 5-10 years have seen substantial research into the pathogenesis of AD and this has lead to the identification of a substantial number of AD biomarkers, which offer important insights into this disease. This report brings together the latest advances in the identification of AD biomarkers and analyses the opportunities they offer in drug R&D and diagnostics.��

Abundance of Lutzomyia longipalpis (Diptera: Psychodidae: Phlebotominae) and urban transmission of visceral leishmaniasis in Campo Grande, state of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil

The outspread and urbanization of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) in Campo Grande, state of Mato Grosso do Sul, lead us to undertake the present study over diversity and abundance of sand flies in the urban area to compare with previous search carried out during 1999/2000, before the identification of the disease in the human population.The captures were carried out with automatic light traps, weekly, from February 2004 to February 2005 on three sites including a forested area (Zé Pereira), two peridomicilies (shelters of domestic animals and cultivation areas), and intradomicilie. In the present study 110 collections were obtained during 13 months for 1320 h of collections, resulting in 5004 specimens, 3649 males and 1355 females belonging to the 20 following species: Brumptomyia avellari, Brumptomyia sp., Bichromomyia flaviscutellata, Evandromyia lenti, E. termitophila, E. cortelezzii, E. borrouli, Lutzomyia sp., L. longipalpis, Micropygomyia quinquefer, N. antunesi, N. whitmani, Pintomyia christenseni, Pi. damascenoi, Psathyromyia aragaoi, Ps. campograndensis, Ps. hermanlenti, Ps. shannoni, Pychodopygus claustrei, and Sciopemyia sordellii. L. longipalpis was the most abundant species in the anthropic environment with 92.22% of the captures. This shows an increase of sixty times in the density of L. longipalpis compared to the last sand fly evaluation in 1999/2000. The high density of L. longipalpis in Campo Grande is the main factor of risk in transmission of the disease to human in the urban area. The capture of N. antunesi, typical specie from Amazonian region, in Mato Grosso do Sul is reported for the first time.

Hospitalization due to norovirus and genotypes of rotavirus in pediatric patients, state of Espírito Santo

Viruses are the leading cause for hospitalization due to gastroenteritis worldwide. Group A rotaviruses (RV) are the most prevalent and are assorted in glycoproteins (G) and protease sensitive (P) dual genotypes based on polymorphic genes that encode the external VP7 and VP4 capsid proteins, respectively. Noroviruses (NoV) have increasingly answered by sporadic gastroenteritis. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of NoV and RV in 68 hospitalized children, between July 2004 and November 2006, at a pediatric hospital in Vitória city, state of Espírito Santo, Southeastern Brazil. Nucleic acid was extracted from fecal suspension following the guanidine-silica procedure. Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis were employed for NoV and RV detection, respectively. RV genotyping was accomplished using RT-PCR followed by heminested multiplex PCR with specific primers for the most prevalent types of G and P. Fecal samples were positive for NoV and RV in 39.7% (27/68) and 20.5% (14/68), respectively and together were responsible for 60% (41/68) of the cases. RV genotypes were: 50% G9P[8], 28.7% G2P[4], 7.1% G1P[8], G2P[8] and G?P[8]. Vomit was a prominent manifestation observed in 92% and 85% of the NoV and RV cases, respectively. The median hospitalization was 5 and 5.5 days for the patients infected with NoV and RV, respectively. The data showed that NoV prevailed over RV and it also corroborated the emergence of RV G9 genotype followed by G2P[4], reinforcing the need for RV genotype surveillance.

Free Technology Academy : a Joint Venture of Free Software and OER

The decision to publish educational materials openly and under free licenses brings up the challenge of doing it in a sustainable way. Some lessons can be learned from the business models for production, maintenance and distribution of Free and Open Source Software. The Free Technology Academy (FTA) has taken on these challenges and has implemented some of these models. We briefly review the FTA educational programme, methodologies and organisation, and see to which extent these models are proving successful in the case of the FTA.

Sociodemographic and occupational risk factors associated with the development of different burnout types: the cross-sectional University of Zaragoza study

BACKGROUND: Three different burnout types have been described: The "frenetic" type describes involved and ambitious subjects who sacrifice their health and personal lives for their jobs; the "underchallenged" type describes indifferent and bored workers who fail to find personal development in their jobs, and the "worn-out" in type describes neglectful subjects who feel they have little control over results and whose efforts go unacknowledged. The study aimed to describe the possible associations between burnout types and general sociodemographic and occupational characteristics. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was carried out on a multi-occupational sample of randomly selected university employees (n = 409). The presence of burnout types was assessed by means of the "Burnout Clinical Subtype Questionnaire (BCSQ-36)", and the degree of association between variables was assessed using an adjusted odds ratio (OR) obtained from multivariate logistic regression models. RESULTS: Individuals working more than 40 hours per week presented with the greatest risk for "frenetic" burnout compared to those working fewer than 35 hours (adjusted OR = 5.69; 95% CI = 2.52-12.82; p < 0.001). Administration and service personnel presented the greatest risk of "underchallenged" burnout compared to teaching and research staff (adjusted OR = 2.85; 95% CI = 1.16-7.01; p = 0.023). Employees with more than sixteen years of service in the organisation presented the greatest risk of "worn-out" burnout compared to those with less than four years of service (adjusted OR = 4.56; 95% CI = 1.47-14.16; p = 0.009). CONCLUSIONS: This study is the first to our knowledge that suggests the existence of associations between the different burnout subtypes (classified according to the degree of dedication to work) and the different sociodemographic and occupational characteristics that are congruent with the definition of each of the subtypes. These results are consistent with the clinical profile definitions of burnout syndrome. In addition, they assist the recognition of distinct profiles and reinforce the idea of differential characterisation of the syndrome for more effective treatment.

Intratracheal dopamine attenuates pulmonary edema and improves survival after ventilator-induced lung injury in rats

INTRODUCTION Clearance of alveolar oedema depends on active transport of sodium across the alveolar-epithelial barrier. beta-Adrenergic agonists increase clearance of pulmonary oedema, but it has not been established whether beta-agonist stimulation achieves sufficient oedema clearance to improve survival in animals. The objective of this study was to determine whether the increased pulmonary oedema clearance produced by intratracheal dopamine improves the survival of rats after mechanical ventilation with high tidal volume (HVT). METHODS This was a randomized, controlled, experimental study. One hundred and thirty-two Wistar-Kyoto rats, weighing 250 to 300 g, were anaesthetized and cannulated via endotracheal tube. Pulmonary oedema was induced by endotracheal instillation of saline solution and mechanical ventilation with HVT. Two types of experiment were carried out. The first was an analysis of pulmonary oedema conducted in six groups of 10 rats ventilated with low (8 ml/kg) or high (25 ml/kg) tidal volume for 30 or 60 minutes with or without intratracheally instilled dopamine. At the end of the experiment the animals were exsanguinated and pulmonary oedema analysis performed. The second experiment was a survival analysis, which was conducted in two groups of 36 animals ventilated with HVT for 60 minutes with or without intratracheal dopamine; survival of the animals was monitored for up to 7 days after extubation. RESULTS In animals ventilated at HVT with or without intratracheal dopamine, oxygen saturation deteriorated over time and was significantly higher at 30 minutes than at 60 minutes. After 60 minutes, a lower wet weight/dry weight ratio was observed in rats ventilated with HVT and instilled with dopamine than in rats ventilated with HVT without dopamine (3.9 +/- 0.27 versus 4.9 +/- 0.29; P = 0.014). Survival was significantly (P = 0.013) higher in animals receiving intratracheal dopamine and ventilated with HVT, especially at 15 minutes after extubation, when 11 of the 36 animals in the HVT group had died as compared with only one out of the 36 animals in the HVT plus dopamine group. CONCLUSION Intratracheal dopamine instillation increased pulmonary oedema clearance in rats ventilated with HVT, and this greater clearance was associated with improved survival.

L' Aula de Teatre de la Universitat de Vic (ATUV) : una aproximació a la seva trajectòria

El present treball de recerca explora i descriu alguns dels aspectes més rellevants del que ha estat la trajectòria de l’Aula de Teatre de la UVic (ATUV) al llarg dels anys. Consta de dues parts diferenciades. En la primera, presento de forma breu alguns dels elements bàsics de caràcter històric que configuren la relació del teatre amb l’educació, fent una especial referència al teatre universitari a l’estat espanyol i a Catalunya. La segona part del treball es desdobla, a la vegada, en dues perspectives. En una, dono compte de l’evolució realitzada per l’Aula de Teatre de la Universitat de Vic, des del punt de vista de la seva organització, característiques i funcionament, i produccions. S’ha fet una memòria descriptiva dels 18 anys de trajectòria de l’ATUV. La segona perspectiva aporta la visió del conjunt de persones (estudiants i exestudiants) que han passat per l’ATUV i que fan, a partir d’un qüestionari tramès prèviament, una valoració dels objectius de dinamització cultural de la Universitat que es proposa l’aula, així com dels aspectes de formació humanística que comprenen el treball de valors, d’habilitats i d’actituds com a procés de creixement personal que han viscut en la seva experiència a l’ATUV..

Obesity and survival in operable breast cancer patients treated with adjuvant anthracyclines and taxanes according to pathological subtypes: a pooled analysis.

INTRODUCTION Obesity is an unfavorable prognostic factor in breast cancer (BC) patients regardless of menopausal status and treatment received. However, the association between obesity and survival outcome by pathological subtype requires further clarification. METHODS We performed a retrospective analysis including 5,683 operable BC patients enrolled in four randomized clinical trials (GEICAM/9906, GEICAM/9805, GEICAM/2003-02, and BCIRG 001) evaluating anthracyclines and taxanes as adjuvant treatments. Our primary aim was to assess the prognostic effect of body mass index (BMI) on disease recurrence, breast cancer mortality (BCM), and overall mortality (OM). A secondary aim was to detect differences of such prognostic effects by subtype. RESULTS Multivariate survival analyses adjusting for age, tumor size, nodal status, menopausal status, surgery type, histological grade, hormone receptor status, human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) status, chemotherapy regimen, and under-treatment showed that obese patients (BMI 30.0 to 34.9) had similar prognoses to that of patients with a BMI < 25 (reference group) in terms of recurrence (Hazard Ratio [HR] = 1.08, 95% Confidence Interval [CI] = 0.90 to 1.30), BCM (HR = 1.02, 0.81 to 1.29), and OM (HR = 0.97, 0.78 to 1.19). Patients with severe obesity (BMI ≥ 35) had a significantly increased risk of recurrence (HR = 1.26, 1.00 to 1.59, P = 0.048), BCM (HR = 1.32, 1.00 to 1.74, P = 0.050), and OM (HR = 1.35, 1.06 to 1.71, P = 0.016) compared to our reference group. The prognostic effect of severe obesity did not vary by subtype. CONCLUSIONS Severely obese patients treated with anthracyclines and taxanes present a worse prognosis regarding recurrence, BCM, and OM than patients with BMI < 25. The magnitude of the harmful effect of BMI on survival-related outcomes was similar across subtypes.

Progression of auditory discrimination based on neural decoding predicts awakening from coma.

Auditory evoked potentials are informative of intact cortical functions of comatose patients. The integrity of auditory functions evaluated using mismatch negativity paradigms has been associated with their chances of survival. However, because auditory discrimination is assessed at various delays after coma onset, it is still unclear whether this impairment depends on the time of the recording. We hypothesized that impairment in auditory discrimination capabilities is indicative of coma progression, rather than of the comatose state itself and that rudimentary auditory discrimination remains intact during acute stages of coma. We studied 30 post-anoxic comatose patients resuscitated from cardiac arrest and five healthy, age-matched controls. Using a mismatch negativity paradigm, we performed two electroencephalography recordings with a standard 19-channel clinical montage: the first within 24 h after coma onset and under mild therapeutic hypothermia, and the second after 1 day and under normothermic conditions. We analysed electroencephalography responses based on a multivariate decoding algorithm that automatically quantifies neural discrimination at the single patient level. Results showed high average decoding accuracy in discriminating sounds both for control subjects and comatose patients. Importantly, accurate decoding was largely independent of patients' chance of survival. However, the progression of auditory discrimination between the first and second recordings was informative of a patient's chance of survival. A deterioration of auditory discrimination was observed in all non-survivors (equivalent to 100% positive predictive value for survivors). We show, for the first time, evidence of intact auditory processing even in comatose patients who do not survive and that progression of sound discrimination over time is informative of a patient's chance of survival. Tracking auditory discrimination in comatose patients could provide new insight to the chance of awakening in a quantitative and automatic fashion during early stages of coma.

Prophylaxis with resin in wood ants

Animals may use plant compounds to defend themselves against parasites. Wood ants, Formica paralugubris, incorporate pieces of solidified conifer resin into their nests. This behaviour inhibits the growth of bacteria and fungi in nest material and protects the ants against some detrimental microorganisms. Here, we studied the resin-collecting behaviour of ants under field and laboratory conditions. First, we focused on an important assumption of the self-medication hypothesis, which is that the animals deliberately choose the active plant material. In field cafeteria tests, the ants indeed showed a strong preference for resin over twigs and stones, which are building materials commonly encountered in their environment. We detected seasonal variation in the choice of ants: the preference for resin over twigs was more pronounced in spring than in summer, whereas in autumn the ants collected twigs and resin at equal rates. Second, we found almost similar seasonal patterns when comparing the collecting rates of pieces of wood that had been impregnated with turpentine (a distillate of oleoresin) and untreated pieces of wood, which reveals that the preference for resin is based on odour cues. Third, we tested whether the collection of resin is prophylactic or therapeutic. We found that the relative collection rate of resin versus stones did not depend on an experimental infection with the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae in laboratory colonies. Together, these results show that the ants deliberately choose the resin and suggest that resin collection is prophylactic rather than therapeutic.