Economic analysis of climate change adaptation strategies in selected coastal areas in Indonesia, Philippines and Vietnam

Climate change with its attendant geophysical hazards is well studied. A great deal of attention has gone into analyzing climate change impacts as well as searching out possible mitigating adaptive strategies. These matters are very real concerns, especially for coastal communities. Such communities are often the most vulnerable to climate change, since their citizens frequently live in abject poverty and have limited capacity to adapt to geophysical hazards. Their situation is further complicated by the prospect of dealing with a confluence of hazards in comparison with those in other ecosystems. Against this backdrop Worldfish and the Economy and Environment Program for Southeast Asia (EEPSEA) collaborated to implement the cross-country study “Climate Change Impacts, Vulnerability Assessments, Economic and Policy Analysis of Adaptation Strategies in Selected Coastal Areas in Indonesia, Philippines, and Vietnam”. As its title suggests the study covered selected sites in Vietnam, Indonesia and the Philippines. Employing a gamut of interdisciplinary methodologies -- ranging from community-based approaches such as community hazard mapping and focus group discussions (FGDs) to regression techniques -- the study documented the impacts from three climate hazards affecting coastal communities. These were typhoon/flooding, coastal erosion, and saltwater intrusion. The team also analyzed planned adaptation options suited to implementation by communities and local governments, augmenting autonomous responses of households to protect and insure themselves from these hazards.

The potential consequences of climate variability and change on coastal areas and marine resources: report of the Coastal Areas and Marine Resources Sector Team, U.S. National Assessment of the Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and Change, U.S. Global Change Research Program

Coastal and marine ecosystems support diverse and important fisheries throughout the nation’s waters, hold vast storehouses of biological diversity, and provide unparalleled recreational opportunities. Some 53% of the total U.S. population live on the 17% of land in the coastal zone, and these areas become more crowded every year. Demands on coastal and marine resources are rapidly increasing, and as coastal areas become more developed, the vulnerability of human settlements to hurricanes, storm surges, and flooding events also increases. Coastal and marine environments are intrinsically linked to climate in many ways. The ocean is an important distributor of the planet’s heat, and this distribution could be strongly influenced by changes in global climate over the 21st century. Sea-level rise is projected to accelerate during the 21st century, with dramatic impacts in low-lying regions where subsidence and erosion problems already exist. Many other impacts of climate change on the oceans are difficult to project, such as the effects on ocean temperatures and precipitation patterns, although the potential consequences of various changes can be assessed to a degree. In other instances, research is demonstrating that global changes may already be significantly impacting marine ecosystems, such as the impact of increasing nitrogen on coastal waters and the direct effect of increasing carbon dioxide on coral reefs. Coastal erosion is already a widespread problem in much of the country and has significant impacts on undeveloped shorelines as well as on coastal development and infrastructure. Along the Pacific Coast, cycles of beach and cliff erosion have been linked to El Niño events that elevate average sea levels over the short term and alter storm tracks that affect erosion and wave damage along the coastline. These impacts will be exacerbated by long-term sea-level rise. Atlantic and Gulf coastlines are especially vulnerable to long-term sea-level rise as well as any increase in the frequency of storm surges or hurricanes. Most erosion events here are the result of storms and extreme events, and the slope of these areas is so gentle that a small rise in sea level produces a large inland shift of the shoreline. When buildings, roads and seawalls block this natural migration, the beaches and shorelines erode, threatening property and infrastructure as well as coastal ecosystems.

Technology and success in restoration, creation, and enhancement of Spartina afferniflora marshes in the United States. Vol. 1: Executive Summary and Annotated Bibliography

Extensive losses of coastal wetlands in the United States caused by sea-level rise, land subsidence, erosion, and coastal development have increased hterest in the creation of salt marshes within estuaries. Smooth cordgrass Spartina altemiflora is the species utilized most for salt marsh creation and restoration throughout the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the U.S., while S. foliosa and Salicomia virginica are often used in California. Salt marshes have many valuable functions such as protecting shorelines from erosion, stabilizing deposits of dredged material, dampening flood effects, trapping water-born sediments, serving as nutrient reservoirs, acting as tertiary water treatment systems to rid coastal waters of contaminants, serving as nurseries for many juvenile fish and shellfish species, and serving as habitat for various wildlife species (Kusler and Kentula 1989). The establishment of vegetation in itself is generally sufficient to provide the functions of erosion control, substrate stabilization, and sediment trapping. The development of other salt marsh functions, however, is more difficult to assess. For example, natural estuarine salt marshes support a wide variety of fish and shellfish, and the abundance of coastal marshes has been correlated with fisheries landings (Turner 1977, Boesch and Turner 1984). Marshes function for aquatic species by providing breeding areas, refuges from predation, and rich feeding grounds (Zimmerman and Minello 1984, Boesch and Turner 1984, Kneib 1984, 1987, Minello and Zimmerman 1991). However, the relative value of created marshes versus that of natural marshes for estuarine animals has been questioned (Carnmen 1976, Race and Christie 1982, Broome 1989, Pacific Estuarine Research Laboratory 1990, LaSalle et al. 1991, Minello and Zimmerman 1992, Zedler 1993). Restoration of all salt marsh functions is necessary to prevent habitat creation and restoration activities from having a negative impact on coastal ecosystems.

Baseline assessment of Fish and Coral bays, St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands in support of watershed restoration activities, part I: fish, coral and benthic habitats

This report provides baseline biological data on fishes, corals and habitats in Coral and Fish Bays, St. John, USVI. A similar report with data on nutrients and contaminants in the same bays is planned to be completed in 2013. Data from NOAA’s long-term Caribbean Coral Reef Ecosystem Monitoring program was compiled to provide a baseline assessment of corals, fishes and habitats from 2001 to 2010, data needed to assess the impacts of erosion control projects installed from 2010 to 2011. The baseline data supplement other information collected as part of the USVI Watershed Stabilization Project, a project funded by the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 and distributed through the NOAA Restoration Center, but uses data which is not within the scope of ARRA funded work. We present data on 16 ecological indicators of fishes, corals and habitats. These indicators were chosen because of their sensitivity to changes in water quality noted in the scientific literature (e.g., Rogers 1990, Larsen and Webb 2009). We report long-term averages and corresponding standard errors, plot annual averages, map indicator values and list inventories of coral and fish species identified among surveys. Similar data will be needed in the future to make rigorous comparisons and determine the magnitude of any impacts from watershed stabilization.

Shallow-water benthic habitats of southwest Puerto Rico

This report describes the creation and assessment of benthic habitat maps for shallow-water (<30m) marine environments of the Guánica/Parguera and Finca Belvedere Natural Reserve in southwest Puerto Rico. The objective was to provide spatially-explicit information on the habitat types, biological cover and live coral cover of the region’s coral reef ecosystem. These fine-scale habitat maps, generated by interpretation of 2010 satellite imagery, provide an update to NOAA’s previous digital maps of the U.S. Caribbean (Kendall et al., 2001) for these areas. Updated shallow-water benthic habitat maps for the Guánica/Parguera region are timely in light of ongoing restoration efforts in the Guánica Bay watershed. The bay is served directly by one river, the Rio Loco, which flows intermittently and more frequently during the rainy season. The watershed has gone through a series of manipulations and alterations in past decades, mainly associated with agricultural practices, including irrigation systems, in the upper watershed. The Guánica Lagoon, previously situated to the north of the bay, was historically the largest freshwater lagoon in Puerto Rico and served as a natural filter and sediment sink prior to the discharge of the Rio Loco into the Bay. Following alterations by the Southwest Water Project in the 1950s, the Lagoon’s adjacent wetland system was ditched and drained; no longer filtering and trapping sediment from the Rio Loco. Land use in the Guánica Bay/Rio Loco watershed has also gone through several changes (CWP, 2008). Similar to much of Puerto Rico, the area was largely deforested for sugar cane cultivation in the 1800s, although reforestation of some areas occurred following the cessation of sugar cane production (Warne et al., 2005). The northern area of the watershed is generally mountainous and is characterized by a mix of forested and agricultural lands, particularly coffee plantations. Closer to the coast, the Lajas Valley Agricultural Reserve extends north of Guánica Bay to the southwest corner of the island. The land use practices and watershed changes outlined above have resulted in large amounts of sediment being distributed in the Rio Loco river valley (CWP, 2008). Storm events and seasonal flooding also transport large amounts of sediment to the coastal waters. The threats of upstream watershed practices to coral reefs and the nearshore marine environment have been gaining recognition. Guánica Bay, and the adjacent marine waters, has been identified as a “management priority area” by NOAA’s Coral Reef Conservation Program (CRCP, 2012). In a recent Guánica Bay watershed management plan, several critical issues were outlined in regards to land-based sources of pollution (LBSP; CWP, 2008). These include: upland erosion from coffee agriculture, filling of reservoirs with sediment, in-stream channel erosion, loss of historical Guánica lagoon, legacy contaminants and sewage treatment (CWP, 2008). The plan recommended several management actions that could be taken to reduce impacts of LBSP, which form the basis of Guánica watershed restoration efforts.

An ecological characterization of the marine resources of Vieques, Puerto Rico. Part I: Historical data synthesis

From the 1940s until 2003, portions of the island of Vieques, a municipality within the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, were used by the US Navy as a base and training facility, resulting in development and zoning history that differ in comparison to other Caribbean islands. The majority of former Navy lands are now under the jurisdiction of the Department of the Interior’s Fish and Wildlife Service as a National Wildlife Refuge, while a smaller percentage of land was transferred to the Vieques municipality and the Puerto Rico Conservation Trust. An analysis of the distribution and status of the marine resources is timely in light of the recent land transfer, increases in development and tourism, and potential changes in marine zoning around the island. To meet this need, NOAA’s Biogeography Branch, in cooperation with the Office of Response and Restoration and other local and regional partners, conducted Part I of an ecological characterization to integrate historical data and research into a synthesis report. The overall objective of this report is to provide resource managers and residents a comprehensive characterization of the marine resources of Vieques to support research, monitoring, and management. For example, knowledge of the spatial distribution of physical features, habitats, and biological communities is necessary to make an informed decision of the establishment and placement of a marine protected area (MPA). The report is divided into chapters based on the physical environment (e.g., climate, geology, bathymetry), habitat types (e.g., reefs and hardbottom, seagrasses, mangroves) and major faunal groups (e.g. fish, turtles, birds). Each section includes five subsections: an overview, description of the relevant literature, methods of analysis, information on the distribution, status and trends of the particular resource, and a discussion of ecological linkages with other components of the Vieques marine ecosystem and surrounding environment. The physical environment of Vieques is similar to other islands within the Greater Antilles chain, with some distinctions. The warm, tropical climate of Vieques, mediated by the northeasterly trade winds, is characterized by a dry season (December-April) and a rainy season (May-November), the latter of which is characterized by the occasional passage of tropical cyclones. Compared to mainland Puerto Rico, Vieques is characterized by lower elevation, less annual precipitation, and higher average temperatures. The amount of annual precipitation also varies spatially within Vieques, with the western portion of the island receiving higher amounts of rainfall than further east. While the North Equatorial Current dominates the circulation pattern in the Greater Antilles region, small scale current patterns specific to Vieques are not as well characterized. These physical processes are important factors mitigating the distribution and composition of marine benthic habitats around Vieques. In general, the topography of Vieques is characterized by rolling hills. Mt. Pirata, the tallest point at 301 m, is located near the southwest coast. In the absence of island wide sedimentation measurements, information on land cover, slope, precipitation, and soil type were used to estimate relative erosion potential and sediment delivery for each watershed. While slope and precipitation amount are the primary driving factors controlling runoff, land use practices such as urban development, military activity, road construction, and agriculture can increase the delivery of pollution and sediments to coastal waters. Due to the recent land transfer, increased development and tourism is expected, which may result in changes in the input of sediments to the coastal environment.

A method to improve size estimates of walleye pollock (Theragra chalcogramma) Atka mackerel (Pleurogrammus monopterygius) consumed by pinnipeds: digestion correction factors applied to bones and otoliths recovered in scats

The lengths of otoliths and other skeletal structures recovered from the scats of pinnipeds, such as Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus), correlate with body size and can be used to estimate the length of prey consumed. Unfortunately, otoliths are often found in too few scats or are too digested to usefully estimate prey size. Alternative diagnostic bones are frequently recovered, but few bone-size to prey-size correlations exist and bones are also reduced in size by various degrees owing to digestion. To prevent underestimates in prey sizes consumed techniques are required to account for the degree of digestion of alternative bones prior to estimating prey size. We developed a method (using defined criteria and photo-reference material) to assign the degree of digestion for key cranial structures of two prey species: walleye pollock (Theragra chalcogramma) and Atka mackerel (Pleurogrammus monopterygius). The method grades each structure into one of three condition categories; good, fair or poor. We also conducted feeding trials with captive Steller sea lions, feeding both fish species to determine the extent of erosion of each structure and to derive condition-specific digestion correction factors to reconstruct the original sizes of the structures consumed. In general, larger structures were relatively more digested than smaller ones. Mean size reduction varied between different types of structures (3.3−26.3%), but was not influenced by the size of the prey consumed. Results from the observations and experiments were combined to be able to reconstruct the size of prey consumed by sea lions and other pinnipeds. The proposed method has four steps: 1) measure the recovered structures and grade the extent of digestion by using defined criteria and photo-reference collection; 2) exclude structures graded in poor condition; 3) multiply measurements of structures in good and fair condition by their appropriate digestion correction factors to derive their original size; and 4) calculate the size of prey from allometric regressions relating corrected structure measurements to body lengths. This technique can be readily applied to piscivore dietary studies that use hard remains of fish.

Sizes of walleye pollock (Theragra chalcogramma) and Atka mackerel (Pleurogrammus monopterygius) consumed by the western stock of Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) in Alaska from 1999 to 2000

Prey-size selectivity by Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) is relevant for understanding the foraging behavior of this declining predator, but studies have been problematic because of the absence and erosion of otoliths usually used to estimate fish length. Therefore, we developed regression formulae to estimate fish length from seven diagnostic cranial structures of walleye pollock (Theragra chalcogramma) and Atka mackerel (Pleurogrammus monopterygius). For both species, all structure measurements were related with fork length of prey (r2 range: 0.78−0.99). Fork length (FL) of walleye pollock and Atka mackerel consumed by Steller sea lions was estimated by applying these regression models to cranial structures recovered from scats (feces) collected between 1998 and 2000 across the range of the Alaskan western stock of Steller sea lions. Experimentally derived digestion correction factors were applied to take into account loss of size due to digestion. Fork lengths of walleye pollock consumed by Steller sea lions ranged from 3.7 to 70.8 cm (mean=39.3 cm, SD=14.3 cm, n=666) and Atka mackerel ranged from 15.3 to 49.6 cm (mean=32.3 cm, SD=5.9 cm, n=1685). Although sample sizes were limited, a greater proportion of juvenile (≤20 cm) walleye pollock were found in samples collected during the summer (June−September) on haul-out sites (64% juveniles, n=11 scats) than on summer rookeries (9% juveniles, n=132 scats) or winter (February−March) haul-out sites (3% juveniles, n=69 scats). Annual changes in the size of Atka mackerel consumed by Steller sea lions corresponded to changes in the length distribution of Atka mackerel resulting from exceptionally strong year classes. Considerable overlap (>51%) in the size of walleye pollock and Atka mackerel taken by Steller sea lions and the sizes of these species caught by the commercial trawl fishery were demonstrated.

Sizes of walleye pollock (Theragra chalcogramma) consumed by the eastern stock of Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) in Southeast Alaska from 1994 to 1999

Lengths of walleye pollock (Theragra chalcogramma) consumed by Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) were estimated by using allometric regressions applied to seven diagnostic cranial structures recovered from 531 scats collected in Southeast Alaska between 1994 and 1999. Only elements in good and fair condition were selected. Selected structural measurements were corrected for loss of size due to erosion by using experimentally derived condition-specific digestion correction factors. Correcting for digestion increased the estimated length of fish consumed by 23%, and the average mass of fish consumed by 88%. Mean corrected fork length (FL) of pollock consumed was 42.4 ±11.6 cm (range=10.0−78.1 cm, n=909). Adult pollock (FL>45.0 cm) occurred more frequently in scats collected from rookeries along the open ocean coastline of Southeast Alaska during June and July (74% adults, mean FL=48.4 cm) than they did in scats from haul-outs located in inside waters between October and May (51% adults, mean FL=38.4 cm). Overall, the contribution of juvenile pollock (≤20 cm) to the sea lion diet was insignificant; whereas adults contributed 44% to the diet by number and 74% by mass. On average, larger pollock were eaten in summer at rookeries throughout Southeast Alaska than at rookeries in the Gulf of Alaska and the Bering Sea. Overall it appears that Steller sea lions are capable of consuming a wide size range of pollock, and the bulk of fish fall between 20 and 60 cm. The use of cranial hard parts other than otoliths and the application of digestion correction factors are fundamental to correctly estimating the sizes of prey consumed by sea lions and determining the extent that these sizes overlap with the sizes of pollock caught by commercial fisheries.

The effects of docks on seagrasses, with particular emphasis on the threatened seagrass, Halophila johnsonii

In March of 2005, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Special Projects Office released "Population Trends along the Coastal United States: 1980-2008." This report includes population changes and trends between 1980 and 2003 and projected changes in coastal populations by 2008. Given the findings, pressure on coastal resources around the country will continue to rise, particularly in Florida. ... One of our most valuable coastal resources is seagrass, but human desire and need to live on the coast means that our habitat overlaps with suitable seagrass habitat. Seagrasses can be found in coastal areas around the world but are limited to relatively shallow, relatively clear water because of their reliance on light for photosynthesis. Seagrasses provide food for both small and large marine organisms, larval and adult stage. They provide shelter and habitat to a variety of commercially important fish and invertebrates. They baffle the water column and inhibit the resuspension of sediments. They prevent erosion and fix and recycle nutrients. The physical and ecological benefits of seagrasses make them very important to human welfare, but their light-limited coastal distribution makes them highly susceptible to anthropogenic influences.

毛乌素沙地土地利用/土地覆被变化研究

毛乌素沙地是我国十二大沙漠之一，地处北方干旱半干旱区向亚湿润区过渡地带，长期以来，不合理的人类土地利用，结合当地脆弱的环境生态特征，引起了严重的现代荒漠化过程，是我国北方荒漠化研究的重点地区。本文着重从自然和人文学科密切合作的角度，对毛乌素沙地土地利用／土地覆被变化的内在作用机制进行了研究，得到以下主要结论： 1. 利用多年实地观测数据资料，考察了毛乌素沙地四种主要草地类型代表性植物群落地上生物量响应气候因子波动的变化规律，建立了植物地上生物量对气候因子的逐月回归模型，揭示出如下规律：①各种气候因子对不同类型草地以及同一类型不同生长阶段草地都产生不同的影响作用;②同一气候因子在植物不同生长阶段上，对生物量形成的重要性程度存在差异：③在植物生长期内，每个生长阶段的生物量都对后一时期的生物量产生显著影响，说明植物生长的连续性对于生物量的形成和积累是重要的;④在植物的凋枯期，各种气候因子基本上都不对生物量产生显著影响;⑤水分因子对毛乌素沙地几乎各种类型草地的生物量，都是重要的影响因子，毛乌素沙地降水状况在不同年份的显著波动对草地植物地上生物量的影响，不仅直接构成了土地覆被变化的重要组成部分，而且还影响到土地利用的方式、方法和后果。 2. 在考察毛乌素沙地草地地上生物量对气候因子变化的响应规律中，利用逐月动态回归建模方法改进了传统的累积气候因子回归建模方法。逐月回归模型与累积回归模型的比较显示，逐月动态回归模型的优势表现在三个方面：①可以提供累积回归模型无法揭示的作用规律;②模拟更加精确;③可以预测不同气候条件下群落地上生物量的变化范围。 3. 利用风速、降水和潜在蒸发等气象记录资料，建立了毛乌素沙地气候因子影响沙尘暴频率的作用模型，定量地考察了沙地各处气候因子对沙尘暴频率的影响作用。研究表明，气候因素是导致毛乌素沙地沙尘暴发生的主导原因，在沙地各处，气候因子可以解释沙尘暴频率分布格局总信息的比率分别为：乌审召83.6%，乌审旗77.5%，河南82.4%，鄂托克旗79.8%，新街73.1%，伊金霍洛旗82%。 4. 在定量考察气候因素对沙尘暴频率影响作用的基础上，对影响沙尘暴频率格局的自然和人为因素进行了定量分离，研究表明：人为影响因素对对沙尘暴发生起次要作用，解释沙尘暴频率分布格局信息的比率分别为：乌审召16.4%，乌审旗22.5%，河南17.6%，鄂托克旗20.2%，新街26.9%，伊金霍洛旗18%。 自然和人为因素影响作用的定量分离研究表明，毛乌素沙地人为因素的影响作用表现出空间上的差异性：①从方位上说，呈现自东向中、西部递减的梯度：②从地点上说，城镇附近人为影响作用远高于农村地区;③从土地利用方式上说，农垦种植业区域高于畜牧业区域。 5. 在实地观测基础上，建立了裸露沙面和植被覆盖沙面风蚀输沙率模型，定量考察了植被覆盖率与风蚀输沙率之间的关系。研究表明：当植被覆盖率达到60%以上，可以保护地表土壤使风蚀在大多数条件下不致发生;当覆盖率达到40%，可以使风蚀输沙大为减少;而当植被覆盖率低于10%，植被覆盖基本不能对地表土壤起到有效的防护作用。 6. 应用植被覆盖地表风蚀输沙率模型，考察了沙地不同风速条件下植被有效覆盖率。根据当地气象台站的多年气象记录，沙地最大风速在20m/s左右，这样的风速条件下，保证风蚀不致发生的植被有效覆盖率为65%左右;在沙地常见的大风风速14-16m/s下，植被有效覆盖率大致为50-55%;对于沙地一般的中等风速l0-12m/s．植被有效覆盖率为40%。植被覆盖对风蚀的影响作用也可以理解为，植被覆盖使沙粒起动风速发生了增大效应，研究表明：与裸露沙面沙粒起动风速4.5m/s对照，70%植被覆盖率使起动风速改变为15.4m/s;60%植被覆盖率使起动风速改变为12.1m/s;40%植被覆盖率使起动风速改变为8.Om/s;而在10%植被覆盖条件下，起动风速为5.Om/s，改变量很小，说明植被覆盖的保护作用极其有限。 7. 基于野外实地观测，比较了沙地五种常见植物种和二种人工防护材料防风效应上的差异。研究表明，防风效应由高到低的次序是，沙蒿>芨芨草>杨柴和牛心朴子>沙障>栅栏>旱柳;就乔、灌、草和人工材料而言，防风效应的次序是，灌木植被>草本植被>人工材料>乔木植被。植物和人工防护材料降低风速的比率与风速呈现二次函数关系，不同植物种或人工材料，降低风速比率都表现出不同的规律，在一般情况下，降低风速效应随着风速的增大而降低。 8. 通过不同植物种防风效应的比较研究，对毛乌素沙地植被生态建设的实践有一定的指导意义。毛乌素沙地的植被建设中对植被类型和植物种类的选择，应该遵循如下原则：①选取防风固沙效应好的植物种类;②应该考虑植物水分供给与需求的平衡状况，实行适地适树;③植物防护效应应该与当地风蚀气候在时间上较好地匹配，在春季等风蚀严重季节，植被覆盖应该具有较好的防风效应。 9. 在现实中，各种影响风蚀的因素是同时发挥作用的。将风蚀影响因素分解为风速、湿润度和植被覆盖率（以及植被类型）三个方面，在此基础上，建立了风蚀影响因素的综合作用的概念模型和沙丘活动性指数定量模型。湿润程度低、风速高、植被覆盖率低的地区，是风蚀最为严重的地区;在湿润程度高、风速低、植被覆盖率高的地区，是风蚀最弱的地区;在其他地区，风蚀状况根据三个方面因素的综合状况来决定。 10. 利用风蚀影响因子综合作用的沙丘活动性指数模型，从空间、时间、植被类型变化角度，考察了毛乌素沙地的风蚀变化状况。得到如下结论：①随着空间变化，风速、降水等气候因素也随之存在差异，导致沙丘活动性指数的变化规律是，西北部鄂托克旗沙丘活动性最高，乌审旗次之，其他几个站差别不太显著，这是由各地降水、气温、沙粒粒径等因素共同决定;②随着时间的变化，气候、植被生长等方面的状况随之发生改变，导致沙丘活动性发生变化，春季最高，冬季次之，夏秋季最低：③随着沙丘植被覆盖类型的变化，沙丘活动性也发生显著变化，在一般情况下，乔木覆盖沙丘活动性>草本植物覆盖沙丘>灌木覆盖沙丘。 11. 在实地调查土地利用现实状况及其社会、经济和政策影响因素的基础上，建立了我国北方干旱半干旱区土地利用决策机制的概念模型，分析了与土地利用密切相关的农牧民一政府一环境科学家这三个社会群体对土地利用的立场和影响作用力上的差异，分析了毛乌素沙地土地利用的现状及其影响因素，探讨了现实中不可持续土地利用行为发生的社会、经济和政策原因。 12. 在实地调查基础上，分别利用产出一费用分析法和过程影响因素分析法，建立了毛乌素沙地土地利用经济收益的定量模型。产出一分析研究表明，无论是农垦种植业，还是草地畜牧业，农牧民从这两种土地利用方式都只能获得较低下的经济收益。造成这种状况的原因，主要在于两个方面：一是低下且不断处于波动之中的农牧业产品物价，二是沉重的农牧业税收。 13. 将影响农牧业产出的因素，划分为四个方面：土地面积（牲畜头数）、环境状况、管理水平和利用强度，在此基础上建立了定量的影响作用模型。研究表明：环境状况指数每增加0.1，农牧业经济收益增加26%;管理水平因子每提高0.1，农牧业经济收益增加12.7%;农牧业经济收益最优的土地利用强度在0.4左右，在此之前，随着利用强度的增加，经济收益随之增大，而在此之后，随着利用强度的增大，经济收益逐渐降低，当土地利用强度达到0.9左右时，呈现负的经济收益。 14. 毛乌素沙地实施土地资源可持续利用，必须从技术的革新和社会经济政策等因素的调整两条途径同时入手，二者缺一不可。通过改进和应用节水灌溉、风能光能利用、生物增产技术，尽可能地提高各种资源的利用效率;通过应用免耕或浅耕技术，尽量减轻土地利用对资源和环境的破坏;通过栽培、速生技术，提高植被建设的成效和速度。而通过税收、物价政策的调整，尽可能地提高农牧民经济收益增长的速度，减轻土地利用压力;通过政府与人民之间对话和合作机制的建立，让广大农牧民参与到土地利用的决策和管理的过程中去;通过土地利用管理政策、措施的调整和完善，调动农牧民保护资源的积极性和自觉性;通过激励机制的建立，引导农牧民土地利用向着可持续的方向发展。 15. 实现毛乌素沙地土地资源可持续利用的有效途径，在于这样几个方面：①建立和完善政府及其管理部门与人民之间有效的对话和合作机制，让广大农牧民参与到土地利用决策和管理的过程中去：②实行产业结构调整，转变片面追求经济增长的做法，制订适应当地自然条件和生态特征的发展模式;③降低农牧业税收、稳定并提高农牧业产品的物价，增加农牧民经济收入，减轻土地利用压力;④进一步改进和完善土地利用管理政策和法规;⑤建立有效激励机制，引导农牧民土地利用向着可持续的方向发展：⑥努力改进节水灌溉技术、生物增产技术，提高土地利用的科技水平：⑦改进环境保护和植被建设决策的科学性，提高植被建设的成效。

浑善达克沙地植物功能型多样性

植物随所处环境条件的变化而产生一系列的形态、生理以及其它特性上的相应变化，形成相应的适应对策，表现出一定的功能策略。把在生态系统中扮演着相似角色并且对环境条件表现出相似的响应的一组具有相似特征（形态和生理特征）的植物称为植物功能型（Plant Functional types），这一概念把植物从个体水平和整个生态系统水平上把生理和生活史过程以及策略合理的联系在一起。有了植物功能型的帮助，我们能够将个体种和个体种群的纷繁 复杂过程总结简化为相对简洁的演化模式。近来的研究已经提出在生态系统过程中功能型多样性比物种多样性更重要。 本文以浑善达克沙地植被为研究对象，按照生命期（一年生与多年生），光合途径（C3光合途径与 C4光合途径），繁殖方式（克隆繁殖和非克隆繁殖）以及生长型（禾草与非禾草）来划分浑善达克沙地的植物功能型，调查监测浑善达克沙地植物功能型的分布及其生态特征对沙地环境的响应。 通过对浑善达克沙地五种不同生境的土壤因子和植物功能型分布及其群落特征的分析研究，结果表明在流动沙丘上一年生C4非克隆繁殖的植物功能型首先侵入，半固定沙丘开始有多年生C3植物功能型定居并逐渐成为优势种，当成为固定沙丘时，本研究中所有浑善达克沙地植物功能型都出现了，其植物功能型多样性最高。滩地中的土壤的有机质和养分含量最高，多年生C3植物占据绝对优势。靠近淖尔边缘，盐分含量和水分增加，多年生C3非禾草成为优势种。在浑善达克沙地，一年生C4非克隆非禾草在沙丘生境中全都存在。流动沙丘、半固定沙丘和固定沙丘之间的土壤条件没有显著差异，但植被特征存在差异。因此，只要排除人为影响和牲畜干扰，辅助以一定的人工措施（如飞播），浑善达克沙地退化草地将向着良性的恢复方向发展。 通过对浑善达克沙地退化草地围封后的植物功能型特征变化研究，在四年的植被恢复过程中，功能型多样性最高的群落可能不是最稳定和恢复时间较长的群落，在我们的研究中，功能型多样性在恢复的第一年和第四年较高，而在恢复的第二年和第三年功能型多样性显著低于第一年和第四年。但第二年和第三年的地上生物量却高于第一年和第四年，从生态系统功能的角度考虑，说明恢复过程中群落的稳定性是短暂过渡的类型，群落恢复过程将呈周期性的波动。在四年的恢复时间里，多年生C3光合途径克隆繁殖禾草无论从植株密度、盖度、物种数以及地上生物量都在群落中占有绝对优势，在退化沙地草地自然恢复早期起到关键作用。 基于连续四年在浑善达克沙地围封区内滩地植被记录，分析了（1）滩地植物群落的植物功能型特征，包括密度、物种数、盖度、地上生物量以及相对重要值;（2）各植物功能型特征对植物功能型多样性（Shannon-Wiener index）的贡献以及(3) 群落初级生产力与物种多样性和植物功能型多样性的关系。结果表明，植物功能型特征显著受生命期、光合途径、繁殖方式以及生长型影响。植物功能型多样性与群落物种数显著相关。逐步回归分析结果显示多年生C3 克隆禾草随着退化草地的恢复进程对植物功能型多样性的影响越来越重要。植物功能型多样性与群落初级生产力之间的关系随着恢复进程而呈现不同的线性关系。 为了调查浑善达克沙地主要植物功能型优势物种对沙地环境的适应，研究了多年生根茎克隆繁殖禾草赖草和多年生非克隆繁殖非禾草褐沙蒿对沙埋和风蚀的响应。结果表明，不同的植物功能型对于沙地风沙蚀积表现出不同的适应对策。在一定程度的沙埋和风蚀胁迫下，赖草通过分株间克隆整合来抵御风沙蚀积，通过对根茎生物量的投资，来逃离胁迫环境。而褐沙蒿通过加大对根生物量的投资来抵御风蚀，通过加大对地上部分的生物量投资来抵御沙埋。

植物克隆性在生态修复中的意义：鄂尔多斯高原赖草和沙鞭的案例

克隆植物通过克隆生长能够很好的适应异质性的生境。在进行植被修复的研究和实践中，注意发扬或引进具有重要资源价值的克隆植物是重要的恢复生态学思考和途径。本文主要应用实验生态学的方法，通过对鄂尔多斯高原不同克隆植物克隆性及其对水分条件的反应的比较，以及对不同克隆植物抵抗风蚀和风蚀坑修复的能力的比较，探讨克隆植物对干旱(水分条件)及风蚀的适应机制，从而对克隆植物的克隆性在生态修复中的意义进行了研究和阐述。 　　对不同水分条件下赖草(Leymus secalinus (Georgi.) Tzvel)和沙鞭(Psammochloa villosa (Trin.) Bor)克隆性的研究表明：克隆生长开始时间和克隆生长率二者与克隆植物新产生子代分株数量之间存在着显著的相关关系，说明克隆生长开始时间和克隆生长率能够作为准确评价克隆性的指标;相对于沙鞭来说，赖草具有更强的克隆性，表现在它的早的克隆生长开始时间、高的克隆生长率，并且这种差异可以被水分条件所修饰;植物的克隆性对水分条件具有较强的可塑性，这种可塑性具有种间差异。相对赖草来说，沙鞭能更好地适应干旱条件。 　　克隆植物植株有两种繁殖体类型，分株和种子。本研究对分别从分株来源和种子来源的赖草与沙鞭植株在不同水分条件下生长状况及克隆性进行了比较，结果表明：水分的增加，有利于赖草的生长;而对于沙鞭来说，水分抑制了分株来源的沙鞭植株的生长，但对种子来源的沙鞭植株的生长有着促进作用。克隆植物的克隆性在水分条件较好的情况下能够得到更好的表达。不同来源有赖草植株之间克隆性没有明显差异;对于沙鞭来说，分株来源的沙鞭植株克隆性受水分条件的影响不明显，但水分有利于种子来源的沙鞭植株克隆性的表达。说明不同繁殖体类型来源的植株，克隆性对水分的反应格局存在着一定的差异。分株来源的沙鞭植株对干旱条件具有比种子来源的植株更强的适应性。 　　通过对沙鞭和赖草实生幼苗在不同风蚀程度下生长状况的比较，结果表明二者幼苗在抵抗风蚀时采取不同的策略。风蚀显著降低了赖草产生新生分株的能力，而对沙鞭潜在分株数没有显著影响。赖草实生幼苗生长状况在轻中度风蚀条件下与对照处理没有显著差异，说明对风蚀具有较强的抵抗能力，其策略可能是风险分担，赖草具有的强克隆性使之能快速产生新的子代分株，从而分担了风蚀造成的风险;沙鞭实生幼苗的生长状况受风蚀影响较为明显，但风蚀没有能对其产生潜在分株(芽)的能力产生显著的影响，说明沙鞭实生幼苗对风蚀可能采取的是通过芽的产生贮存资源、逃避风险、等待机会的策略。赖草和沙鞭对风蚀所采用的不同适应策略，可能会影响到二者在自然条件下种群更新方式的选择。 　　为了探讨克隆植物对风蚀坑修复能力及机理，研究了沙鞭和赖草对种群内风蚀坑的修复过程，结果表明：合轴型克隆草本赖草具有比单轴型克隆草本沙鞭更强的植被修复能力，能够在风蚀坑中产生更多的新生分株，这主要归功于赖草的强克隆性，而赖草间隔子的可塑性反应也有利于将更多的新生分株放置在风蚀坑内。二者进行植被修复的机理有所差异，赖草对风蚀坑的修复主要是通过周围根茎扩展进入坑中，然后产生新的分株;而沙鞭不仅可以通过周边根茎进入产生新的分株，同时也可以通过刺激深层休眠芽来产生新的分株。二者都能在风蚀坑中产生比自然条件下更多的分株，以更好利用风蚀坑中充足的光照;但同时这些分株的生长也受到风蚀坑中养分条件的制约，生物量和生长状况都不如自然条件下形成的分株。 　　 　　

克隆整合对植物竞争力和群落结构的影响

某些克隆植物通过克隆整合能够很好的适应逆境或快速扩张。基于克隆整合，研究克隆植物的抗逆性、入侵性及其对群落结构的影响在很多方面值得深入。本文主要应用实验生态学的方法，分别在野外或温室以沙鞭、空心莲子草和羊柴为主要研究对象，研究克隆整合对处于逆境生长条件下克隆植物生长的影响;克隆整合对入侵植物竞争力和被入侵植物群落组成的影响;克隆整合对沙地群落结构和初级生产力的影响，探讨克隆植物对风蚀和水淹的适应机制、入侵克隆植物的入侵机制以及对群落组成和结构的影响机制。主要结论如下： 1. 沙鞭分株的叶片数目和生物量跟沙鞭根状茎的埋藏深度高度正相关，当根状茎被暴露在空气中时，上面所依附的分株要么死亡，要么长势很弱。每样方内沙鞭的分株数目、叶片数目和总生物量随风蚀强度的增加而降低。在对照和短期风蚀中，根状茎连接并不影响上述指标，但是在长期风蚀下，根状茎连接的作用会增强。根状茎连接能够减轻风蚀对沙鞭的负面影响，这很有可能是因为遭受风蚀胁迫的分株从那些没有遭受风蚀侵害的分株那里获得了水分和光合产物的资助。本研究首次证实了保持根状茎连接有助于提高干旱区植物抵御风蚀的能力。 2. 水淹会降低空心莲子草先端分株的生长;克隆整合显著增强了空心莲子草先端分株的生长和繁殖，但降低了基端分株的生长和繁殖。最终，克隆整合并不影响整体空心莲子草克隆片段的生长表现，这预示当空心莲子草从陆地生境向水生生境扩散时，克隆整合对其总体没有净收益。我们认为空心莲子草在由陆地扩张到水域时，可能拥有一种“双刃剑”机制：当处于水生生境中的先端分株得到处于陆生生境中的基端分株的资源支持时，先端分株能够增强自身生长;当因外界扰动导致二者间相连匍匐茎断裂后，陆生生境中的基端分株能够快速增强自身的匍匐茎和分株生长。这种机制可能使得空心莲子草很好的适应高度干扰或高度异质生境，从而增强了其入侵性。 3. 竞争显著降低了空心莲子草先端分株的光系统II中的最大量子产额(Fv/Fm)和生长（生物量、分株数目、叶片数目、总匍匐茎长度和总叶面积），但并不影响高羊茅的生物量。匍匐茎连接显著增强了空心莲子草先端分株的最大量子产额和生长。然而，这种连接效应在竞争时的作用要比非竞争时的作用小的多，而且匍匐茎连接并没有改变空心莲子草的相对邻体效应。与非竞争环境相反，在竞争条件下匍匐茎连接会降低空心莲子草对根系的生物量投资。克隆整合可能对提高空心莲子草的竞争力帮助不大，但是对其开拓空旷领地却非常重要。这些结果预示空心莲子草的入侵性可能和其克隆整合作用有密切关系。 4. 克隆整合显著增强了空心莲子草在群落中的扩张能力，但并没有提高其抑制整体群落物种的能力。相比低密度播种群落，生长在高密度播种群落中的空心莲子草长势明显要弱，高密度播种群落具有更强的抵御入侵的能力。在低密度播种群落中，相比切断群落内外空心莲子草相连匍匐茎，如果保持其连接，优势物种的地上生物量会降低而次优势物种的地上生物量会增加，进而群落的丰富度会得到提高。实验结果预示克隆整合能够增强入侵物种在建植群落中的扩张速度，并能够修饰其在群落结构上的影响，改变群落中单个物种的生长表现。 5. 克隆整合显著增强了羊柴在沙地植物群落中的分株数目，但并没有提高其地上生物量。羊柴分株数目的变化受不同处理因素的影响，在加氮的处理中分株数目为最大，切断处理中为最小。在群落主要组成物种中，克隆整合显著影响了烛台虫实的地上生物量，而其它主要物种的地上生物量则不受处理因素影响。克隆整合并没有影响沙地群落的物种多样性，但会显著影响沙地群落的初级生产力，尤其是添加氮肥以后。

Pathogenicity of Aeromonas hydrophila artificially infected to Indian major carp (Cirrhinus mrigala Ham.)

Abrasion, feeding, injection and immersion methods were used to evaluate the pathogenicity of five different strains of Aeromonas hydrophila viz. RG (rui gill), ML (mrigal lesion), SG (sharpunti gill), F1K (mrigal kidney), GFL (gold fish lesion) and Ah-19 (Aeromonas hydrophila-19, Ref. Strain) against C. mrigala H. Bacterial suspension containing viable cells of 7.5x 10⁵ per ml was found to be very effective in intramuscular injection and feeding resulting 100% mortality after 96hr of inoculation. The strain RG, ML and F1K produced scale loss with erosion of the skin surface with/without hemorrhagic lesion after 48hr of inoculation following abrasion method. The strains SG and Ah-19 resulting scale loss with erosion of the skin surface with/without hemorrhagic lesion after 72hr of inoculation following abrasion and injection methods. SG and F1K caused reddening in mouth region after 72hr of feeding inoculation, whereas RG resulted frank ulcers from eroded dermal layer exposing underlying musculature which was hemorrhagic after 96hr of inoculation by abrasion method.