Energy aware data gathering based on adaptive modulation scaling in wireless sensor networks

Energy consumption has been a key concern of data gathering in wireless sensor networks. Previous research works show that modulation scaling is an efficient technique to reduce energy consumption. However, such technique will also impact on both packet delivery latency and packet loss, therefore, may result in adverse effects on the qualities of applications. In this paper, we study the problem of modulation scaling and energy-optimization. A mathematical model is proposed to analyze the impact of modulation scaling on the overall energy consumption, end-to-end mean delivery latency and mean packet loss rate. A centralized optimal management mechanism is developed based on the model, which adaptively adjusts the modulation levels to minimize energy consumption while ensuring the QoS for data gathering. Experimental results show that the management mechanism saves significant energy in all the investigated scenarios. Some valuable results are also observed in the experiments. © 2004 IEEE.

Further preliminary assessment of three human glioma cell lines as models of human astrocytic toxicity in vitro

Three human astroglioma lines U251-MG, U373-MG and CCF-STTG1 have been evaluated further as possible models for astrocytotoxicity (GFAP and IL-6 release). The effects of bacterial lipopolysaccharide, chloroquine diphosphate and acrylamide were studied on GFAP expression and LPS, chloroquine diphosphate, ethanol, trimethyltin chloride (TMTC) and acrylamide were examined on interleukin-6 (IL-6) release in the U373-MG line only. At 4-h LIPS elevated GFAP (17.0±5.0% P < 0.05) above control in the U251-MG cell line only. Chloroquine diphosphate over 4 h in the U251-MG line resulted in an increase in GFAP-IR to 20.3 ±4.2% and 21.1 ± 4.1 % above control levels 0.1 µM (P< 0.05) and 1 µM (P< 0.05) respectively. CQD was associated with decreases in MTT turnover, particularly after 24 h incubation. With the U373-MG line, LPS (0.5 µg/ml) increased IL-6 expression 640% above control (P < 0.001), whilst chloroquine diphosphate (100 µM), ethanol (10mM) and TMTC chloride (1 µM) also increased IL-6. It is possible that batteries of astrocytic human glioma cell lines may be applicable to the sensitive evaluation of toxicants on astrogliotic expression markers such as GFAP and IL-6.

Estimation of transportation battery second life for use in electricity grid systems

This paper presents research from part of a larger project focusing on the potential development of commercial opportunities for the reuse of batteries on the electricity grid system, subsequent to their primary use in low and ultra-low carbon vehicles, and investigating the life cycle issues surrounding the batteries. The work has three main areas; examination of electric vehicle fleet data in detail to investigate usage in first life. Batteries that have passed through a battery recycler at the end of their first life have been tested within the laboratory to confirm the general assumption that remaining capacity of 80% after use in transportation is a reasonable assumption as a basis for second-life applications. The third aspect of the paper is an investigation of the equivalent usage for three different second-life applications based on connection to the electricity grid. Additionally, the paper estimates the time to cell failure of the batteries within their second-life application to estimate lifespan for use within commercial investigations. © 2014 IEEE.

Reliability estimation of second life battery system power electronic topologies for grid frequency response applications

This paper is part of a project which aims to research the opportunities for the re-use of batteries after their primary use in low and ultra low carbon vehicles on the electricity grid system. One potential revenue stream is to provide primary/secondary/high frequency response to National Grid through market mechanisms via DNO's or Energy service providers. Some commercial battery energy storage systems (BESS) already exist on the grid system, but these tend to use costly new or high performance batteries. Second life batteries should be available at lower cost than new batteries but reliability becomes an important issue as individual batteries may suffer from degraded performance or failure. Therefore converter topology design could be used to influence the overall system reliability. A detailed reliability calculation of different single phase battery-to-grid converter interfacing schemes is presented. A suitable converter topology for robust and reliable BESS is recommended.

Postural control is not systematically related to reading skills:implications for the assessment of balance as a risk factor for developmental dyslexia

Impaired postural control has been associated with poor reading skills, as well as with lower performance on measures of attention and motor control variables that frequently co-occur with reading difficulties. Measures of balance and motor control have been incorporated into several screening batteries for developmental dyslexia, but it is unclear whether the relationship between such skills and reading manifests as a behavioural continuum across the range of abilities or is restricted to groups of individuals with specific disorder phenotypes. Here were obtained measures of postural control alongside measures of reading, attention and general cognitive skills in a large sample of young adults (n = 100). Postural control was assessed using centre of pressure (CoP) measurements, obtained over 5 different task conditions. Our results indicate an absence of strong statistical relationships between balance measures with either reading, cognitive or attention measures across the sample as a whole. © 2014 Loras et al.

Second life battery energy storage systems:converter topology and redundancy selection

Battery energy storage systems have traditionally been manufactured using new batteries with a good reliability. The high cost of such a system has led to investigations of using second life transportation batteries to provide an alternative energy storage capability. However, the reliability and performance of these batteries is unclear and multi-modular power electronics with redundancy have been suggested as a means of helping with this issue. This paper reviews work already undertaken on battery failure rate to suggest suitable figures for use in reliability calculations. The paper then uses reliability analysis and a numerical example to investigate six different multi-modular topologies and suggests how the number of series battery strings and power electronic module redundancy should be determined for the lowest hardware cost using a numerical example. The results reveal that the cascaded dc-side modular with single inverter is the lowest cost solution for a range of battery failure rates.

A multi-modular second life hybrid battery energy storage system for utility grid applications

The modern grid system or the smart grid is likely to be populated with multiple distributed energy sources, e.g. wind power, PV power, Plug-in Electric Vehicle (PEV). It will also include a variety of linear and nonlinear loads. The intermittent nature of renewable energies like PV, wind turbine and increased penetration of Electric Vehicle (EV) makes the stable operation of utility grid system challenging. In order to ensure a stable operation of the utility grid system and to support smart grid functionalities such as, fault ride-through, frequency response, reactive power support, and mitigation of power quality issues, an energy storage system (ESS) could play an important role. A fast acting bidirectional energy storage system which can rapidly provide and absorb power and/or VARs for a sufficient time is a potentially valuable tool to support this functionality. Battery energy storage systems (BESS) are one of a range suitable energy storage system because it can provide and absorb power for sufficient time as well as able to respond reasonably fast. Conventional BESS already exist on the grid system are made up primarily of new batteries. The cost of these batteries can be high which makes most BESS an expensive solution. In order to assist moving towards a low carbon economy and to reduce battery cost this work aims to research the opportunities for the re-use of batteries after their primary use in low and ultra-low carbon vehicles (EV/HEV) on the electricity grid system. This research aims to develop a new generation of second life battery energy storage systems (SLBESS) which could interface to the low/medium voltage network to provide necessary grid support in a reliable and in cost-effective manner. The reliability/performance of these batteries is not clear, but is almost certainly worse than a new battery. Manufacturers indicate that a mixture of gradual degradation and sudden failure are both possible and failure mechanisms are likely to be related to how hard the batteries were driven inside the vehicle. There are several figures from a number of sources including the DECC (Department of Energy and Climate Control) and Arup and Cenex reports indicate anything from 70,000 to 2.6 million electric and hybrid vehicles on the road by 2020. Once the vehicle battery has degraded to around 70-80% of its capacity it is considered to be at the end of its first life application. This leaves capacity available for a second life at a much cheaper cost than a new BESS Assuming a battery capability of around 5-18kWhr (MHEV 5kWh - BEV 18kWh battery) and approximate 10 year life span, this equates to a projection of battery storage capability available for second life of >1GWhrs by 2025. Moreover, each vehicle manufacturer has different specifications for battery chemistry, number and arrangement of battery cells, capacity, voltage, size etc. To enable research and investment in this area and to maximize the remaining life of these batteries, one of the design challenges is to combine these hybrid batteries into a grid-tie converter where their different performance characteristics, and parameter variation can be catered for and a hot swapping mechanism is available so that as a battery ends it second life, it can be replaced without affecting the overall system operation. This integration of either single types of batteries with vastly different performance capability or a hybrid battery system to a grid-tie 3 energy storage system is different to currently existing work on battery energy storage systems (BESS) which deals with a single type of battery with common characteristics. This thesis addresses and solves the power electronic design challenges in integrating second life hybrid batteries into a grid-tie energy storage unit for the first time. This study details a suitable multi-modular power electronic converter and its various switching strategies which can integrate widely different batteries to a grid-tie inverter irrespective of their characteristics, voltage levels and reliability. The proposed converter provides a high efficiency, enhanced control flexibility and has the capability to operate in different operational modes from the input to output. Designing an appropriate control system for this kind of hybrid battery storage system is also important because of the variation of battery types, differences in characteristics and different levels of degradations. This thesis proposes a generalised distributed power sharing strategy based on weighting function aims to optimally use a set of hybrid batteries according to their relative characteristics while providing the necessary grid support by distributing the power between the batteries. The strategy is adaptive in nature and varies as the individual battery characteristics change in real time as a result of degradation for example. A suitable bidirectional distributed control strategy or a module independent control technique has been developed corresponding to each mode of operation of the proposed modular converter. Stability is an important consideration in control of all power converters and as such this thesis investigates the control stability of the multi-modular converter in detailed. Many controllers use PI/PID based techniques with fixed control parameters. However, this is not found to be suitable from a stability point-of-view. Issues of control stability using this controller type under one of the operating modes has led to the development of an alternative adaptive and nonlinear Lyapunov based control for the modular power converter. Finally, a detailed simulation and experimental validation of the proposed power converter operation, power sharing strategy, proposed control structures and control stability issue have been undertaken using a grid connected laboratory based multi-modular hybrid battery energy storage system prototype. The experimental validation has demonstrated the feasibility of this new energy storage system operation for use in future grid applications.

Adaptive control of hybrid battery energy storage systems under capacity fade

There is an increasing call for applications which use a mixture of batteries. These hybrid battery solutions may contain different battery types for example; using second life ex-transportation batteries in grid support applications or a combination of high power, low energy and low power, high energy batteries to meet multiple energy requirements or even the same battery types but under different states of health for example, being able to hot swap out a battery when it has failed in an application without changing all the batteries and ending up with batteries with different performances, capacities and impedances. These types of applications typically use multi-modular converters to allow hot swapping to take place without affecting the overall performance of the system. A key element of the control is how the different battery performance characteristics may be taken into account and the how the power is then shared among the different batteries in line with their performance. This paper proposes a control strategy which allows the power in the batteries to be effectively distributed even under capacity fade conditions using adaptive power sharing strategy. This strategy is then validated against a system of three different battery types connected to a multi-modular converter both with and without capacity fade mechanisms in place.

Analysis and comparative study of different converter modes in modular second life hybrid battery energy storage systems

The use of ex-transportation battery system (i.e. second life EV/HEV batteries) in grid applications is an emerging field of study. A hybrid battery scheme offers a more practical approach in second life battery energy storage systems because battery modules could be from different sources/ vehicle manufacturers depending on the second life supply chain and have different characteristics e.g. voltage levels, maximum capacity and also different levels of degradations. Recent research studies have suggested a dc-side modular multilevel converter topology to integrate these hybrid batteries to a grid-tie inverter. Depending on the battery module characteristics, the dc-side modular converter can adopt different modes such as boost, buck or boost-buck to suitably transfer the power from battery to the grid. These modes have different switching techniques, control range, different efficiencies, which give a system designer choice on operational mode. This paper presents an analysis and comparative study of all the modes of the converter along with their switching performances in detail to understand the relative advantages and disadvantages of each mode to help to select the suitable converter mode. Detailed study of all the converter modes and thorough experimental results based on a multi-modular converter prototype based on hybrid batteries has been presented to validate the analysis.

Control of cascaded DC-DC converter-based hybrid battery energy storage systems - Part I:stability Issue

There is an emerging application which uses a mixture of batteries within an energy storage system. These hybrid battery solutions may contain different battery types. A DC-side cascaded boost converters along with a module based distributed power sharing strategy has been proposed to cope with variations in battery parameters such as, state-of-charge and/or capacity. This power sharing strategy distributes the total power among the different battery modules according to these battery parameters. Each module controller consists of an outer voltage loop with an inner current loop where the desired control reference for each control loop needs to be dynamically varied according to battery parameters to undertake this sharing. As a result, the designed control bandwidth or stability margin of each module control loop may vary in a wide range which can cause a stability problem within the cascaded converter. This paper reports such a unique issue and thoroughly investigates the stability of the modular converter under the distributed sharing scheme. The paper shows that a cascaded PI control loop approach cannot guarantee the system stability throughout the operating conditions. A detailed analysis of the stability issue and the limitations of the conventional approach are highlighted. Finally in-depth experimental results are presented to prove the stability issue using a modular hybrid battery energy storage system prototype under various operating conditions.

Practical design considerations of cascaded hybrid battery storage systems

The high cost of batteries has led to investigations in using second-life ex-transportation batteries for grid support applications. Vehicle manufacturers currently all have different specifications for battery chemistry, arrangement of cells, capacity and voltage. With anticipated new developments in battery chemistry which could also affect these parameters, there are, as yet, no standards defining parameters in second life applications. To overcome issues relating to sizing and to prevent future obsolescence for the rest of the energy storage system, a cascaded topology with an operating envelope design approach has been used to connect together modules. This topology offers advantages in terms of system reliability. The design methodology is validated through a set of experimental results resulting in the creation of surface maps looking at the operation of the converter (efficiency and inductor ripple current). The use of a pre-defined module operating envelope also offers advantages for developing new operational strategies for systems with both hybrid battery energy systems and also hybrid systems including other energy sources such as solar power.

Solar PV-powered SRM drive for EVs with flexible energy control functions

Electric vehicles (EVs) provide a feasible solution to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and thus become a hot topic for research and development. Switched reluctance motors (SRMs) are one of promised motors for EV applications. In order to extend the EVs’ driving miles, the use of photovoltaic (PV) panels on the vehicle helps decrease the reliance on vehicle batteries. Based on phase winding characteristics of SRMs, a tri-port converter is proposed in this paper to control the energy flow between the PV panel, battery and SRM. Six operating modes are presented, four of which are developed for driving and two for standstill on-board charging. In the driving modes, the energy decoupling control for maximum power point tracking (MPPT) of the PV panel and speed control of the SRM are realized. In the standstill charging modes, a grid-connected charging topology is developed without a need for external hardware. When the PV panel directly charges the battery, a multi-section charging control strategy is used to optimize energy utilization. Simulation results based on Matlab/Simulink and experiments prove the effectiveness of the proposed tri-port converter, which has potential economic implications to improve the market acceptance of EVs.