Alterazione della proteostasi a livello del reticolo endoplasmatico: un potenziale target terapeutico nel carcinoma prostatico

Nel sesso maschile il carcinoma della prostata (CaP) è la neoplasia più frequente ed è tra le prime cause di morte per tumore. Ad oggi, sono disponibili diverse strategie terapeutiche per il trattamento del CaP, ma, come comprovato dall’ancora alta mortalità, spesso queste sono inefficaci, a causa soprattutto dello sviluppo di fenomeni di resistenza da parte delle cellule tumorali. La ricerca si sta quindi focalizzando sulla caratterizzazione di tali meccanismi di resistenza e, allo stesso tempo, sull’individuazione di combinazioni terapeutiche che siano più efficaci e capaci di superare queste resistenze. Le cellule tumorali sono fortemente dipendenti dai meccanismi connessi con l’omeostasi proteica (proteostasi), in quanto sono sottoposte a numerosi stress ambientali (ipossia, carenza di nutrienti, esposizione a chemioterapici, ecc.) e ad un’aumentata attività trascrizionale, entrambi fattori che causano un accumulo intracellulare di proteine anomale e/o mal ripiegate, le quali possono risultare dannose per la cellula e vanno quindi riparate o eliminate efficientemente. La cellula ha sviluppato diversi sistemi di controllo di qualità delle proteine, tra cui gli chaperon molecolari, il sistema di degradazione associato al reticolo endoplasmatico (ERAD), il sistema di risposta alle proteine non ripiegate (UPR) e i sistemi di degradazione come il proteasoma e l’autofagia. Uno dei possibili bersagli in cellule tumorali secretorie, come quelle del CaP, è rappresentato dal reticolo endoplasmatico (RE), organello intracellulare deputato alla sintesi, al ripiegamento e alle modificazioni post-traduzionali delle proteine di membrana e secrete. Alterazioni della protestasi a livello del RE inducono l’UPR, che svolge una duplice funzione nella cellula: primariamente funge da meccanismo omeostatico e di sopravvivenza, ma, quando l’omeostasi non è più ripristinabile e lo stimolo di attivazione dell’UPR cronicizza, può attivare vie di segnalazione che conducono alla morte cellulare programmata. La bivalenza, tipica dell’UPR, lo rende un bersaglio particolarmente interessante per promuovere la morte delle cellule tumorali: si può, infatti, sfruttare da una parte l’inibizione di componenti dell’UPR per abrogare i meccanismi adattativi e di sopravvivenza e dall’altra si può favorire il sovraccarico dell’UPR con conseguente induzione della via pro-apoptotica. Le catechine del tè verde sono composti polifenolici estratti dalle foglie di Camellia sinesis che possiedono comprovati effetti antitumorali: inibiscono la proliferazione, inducono la morte di cellule neoplastiche e riducono l’angiogenesi, l’invasione e la metastatizzazione di diversi tipi tumorali, tra cui il CaP. Diversi studi hanno osservato come il RE sia uno dei bersagli molecolari delle catechine del tè verde. In particolare, recenti studi del nostro gruppo di ricerca hanno messo in evidenza come il Polyphenon E (estratto standardizzato di catechine del tè verde) sia in grado, in modelli animali di CaP, di causare un’alterazione strutturale del RE e del Golgi, un deficit del processamento delle proteine secretorie e la conseguente induzione di uno stato di stress del RE, il quale causa a sua volta l’attivazione delle vie di segnalazione dell’UPR. Nel presente studio su due diverse linee cellulari di CaP (LNCaP e DU145) e in un nostro precedente studio su altre due linee cellulari (PNT1a e PC3) è stato confermato che il Polyphenon E è capace di indurre lo stress del RE e di determinare l’attivazione delle vie di segnalazione dell’UPR, le quali possono fungere da meccanismo di sopravvivenza, ma anche contribuire a favorire la morte cellulare indotta dalle catechine del tè verde (come nel caso delle PC3). Considerati questi effetti delle catechine del tè verde in qualità di induttori dell’UPR, abbiamo ipotizzato che la combinazione di questi polifenoli bioattivi e degli inibitori del proteasoma, anch’essi noti attivatori dell’UPR, potesse comportare un aggravamento dell’UPR stesso tale da innescare meccanismi molecolari di morte cellulare programmata. Abbiamo quindi studiato l’effetto di tale combinazione in cellule PC3 trattate con epigallocatechina-3-gallato (EGCG, la principale tra le catechine del tè verde) e due diversi inibitori del proteasoma, il bortezomib (BZM) e l’MG132. I risultati hanno dimostrato, diversamente da quanto ipotizzato, che l’EGCG quando associato agli inibitori del proteasoma non produce effetti sinergici, ma che anzi, quando viene addizionato al BZM, causa una risposta simil-antagonistica: si osserva infatti una riduzione della citotossicità e dell’effetto inibitorio sul proteasoma (accumulo di proteine poliubiquitinate) indotti dal BZM, inoltre anche l’induzione dell’UPR (aumento di GRP78, p-eIF2α, CHOP) risulta ridotta nelle cellule trattate con la combinazione di EGCG e BZM rispetto alle cellule trattate col solo BZM. Gli stessi effetti non si osservano invece nelle cellule PC3 trattate con l’EGCG in associazione con l’MG132, dove non si registra alcuna variazione dei parametri di vitalità cellulare e dei marcatori di inibizione del proteasoma e di UPR (rispetto a quelli osservati nel singolo trattamento con MG132). Essendo l’autofagia un meccanismo compensativo che si attiva in seguito all’inibizione del proteasoma o allo stress del RE, abbiamo valutato che ruolo potesse avere tale meccanismo nella risposta simil-antagonistica osservata in seguito al co-trattamento con EGCG e BZM. I nostri risultati hanno evidenziato, in cellule trattate con BZM, l’attivazione di un flusso autofagico che si intensifica quando viene addizionato l’EGCG. Tramite l’inibizione dell’autofagia mediante co-somministrazione di clorochina, è stato possibile stabilire che l’autofagia indotta dall’EGCG favorisce la sopravvivenza delle cellule sottoposte al trattamento combinato tramite la riduzione dell’UPR. Queste evidenze ci portano a concludere che per il trattamento del CaP è sconsigliabile associare le catechine del tè verde con il BZM e che in futuri studi di combinazione di questi polifenoli con composti antitumorali sarà importante valutare il ruolo dell’autofagia come possibile meccanismo di resistenza.

Role of heme regulated eIF2α kinase in pancreatic beta cell function and viability

The eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 alpha (eIF2α) is part of the initiation complex that drives the initiator amino acid methionine to the ribosome, a crucial step in protein translation. In stress conditions such as virus infection, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, amino acid or heme deficiency eIF2α can be phosphorylated and thereby inhibit global protein synthesis. This adaptive mechanism prevents protein accumulation and consequent cytotoxic effects. Heme-regulated eIF2α kinase (HRI) is a member of the eIF2α kinase family that regulates protein translation in heme deficiency conditions. Although present in all tissues, HRI is predominantly expressed in erythroid cells where it remains inactive in the presence of normal heme concentrations. In response to heme deficiency, HRI is activated and phosphorylates eIF2α decreasing globin synthesis. This mechanism is important to prevent accumulation of heme-free globin chains which cause ER stress and apoptosis. RNA sequencing data from our group showed that in human islets and in primary rat beta cells HRI is the most expressed eIF2α kinase compared to the other family members. Despite its high expression levels, little is known about HRI function in beta cells. The aim of this project is to identify the role of HRI in pancreatic beta cells. This was investigated taking a loss-of-function approach. HRI knock down (KD) by RNA interference induced beta cell apoptosis in basal condition. HRI KD potentiated the apoptotic effects of palmitate or proinflammatory cytokines, two in vitro models for type 2 and type 1 diabetes, respectively. Increased cytokine-induced apoptosis was also observed in HRI-deficient primary rat beta cells. Unexpectedly, we observed a mild increase in eIF2α phosphorylation in HRI-deficient cells. The levels of mRNA or protein expression of C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP) and activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) were not modified. HRI KD cells have decreased spliced X-box binding protein 1 (XBP1s), an important branch of the ER stress response. However, overexpression of XBP1s by adenovirus in HRI KD cells did not protect from HRI siRNA-induced apoptosis. HRI deficiency decreased phosphorylation of Akt and its downstream targets glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3), forkhead box protein O1 (FOXO1) and Bcl-2-associated death promoter (BAD). Overexpression of a constitutively active form of Akt by adenovirus in HRI-deficient beta cells partially decreased HRI KD-mediated apoptosis. Interestingly, BAD silencing protected from apoptosis caused by HRI deficiency. HRI silencing in beta cells also induced JNK activation. These results suggest an important role of HRI in beta cell survival through modulation of the Akt/BAD pathway. Thus, HRI may be an interesting target to modulate beta cell fate in diabetic conditions.

Modulação da diferenciação neural de células troco embrionárias por transientes de cálcio intracelulares: papéis dos receptores purinérgicos e de canais de cálcio voltagem-dependentes

Receptores purinérgicos e canais de cálcio voltagem-dependentes estão envolvidos em diversos processos biológicos como na gastrulação, durante o desenvolvimento embrionário, e na diferenciação neural. Quando ativados, canais de cálcio voltagem-dependentes e receptores purinérgicos do tipo P2, ativados por nucleotídeos, desencadeiam transientes de cálcio intracelulares controlando diversos processos biológicos. Neste trabalho, nós estudamos a participação de canais de cálcio voltagem-dependentes e receptores do tipo P2 na geração de transientes de cálcio espontâneos e sua regulação na expressão de fatores de transcrição relacionados com a neurogênese utilizando como modelo células tronco (CTE) induzidas à diferenciação em células tronco neurais (NSC) com ácido retinóico. Descrevemos que CTE indiferenciadas podem ter a proliferação acelerada pela ativação de receptores P2X7, enquanto que a expressão e a atividade desse receptor precisam ser inibidas para o progresso da diferenciação em neuroblasto. Além disso, ao longo da diferenciação neural, por análise em tempo real dos níveis de cálcio intracelular livre identificamos 3 padrões de oscilações espontâneas de cálcio (onda, pico e unique), e mostramos que ondas e picos tiveram a frequência e amplitude aumentadas conforme o andamento da diferenciação. Células tratadas com o inibidor do receptor de inositol 1,4,5-trifosfato (IP3R), Xestospongin C, apresentaram picos mas não ondas, indicando que ondas dependem exclusivamente de cálcio oriundo do retículo endoplasmático pela ativação de IP3R. NSC de telencéfalo de embrião de camundongos transgênicos ou pré-diferenciadas de CTE tratadas com Bz-ATP, o agonista do receptor P2X7, e com 2SUTP, agonista de P2Y2 e P2Y4, aumentaram a frequência e a amplitude das oscilações espontâneas de cálcio do tipo pico. Dados, obtidos por microscopia de luminescência, da expressão em tempo real de gene repórter luciferase fusionado à Mash1 e Ngn2 revelou que a ativação dos receptores P2Y2/P2Y4 aumentou a expressão estável de Mash1 enquanto que ativação do receptor P2X7 levou ao aumento de Ngn2. Além disso, células na presença do quelante de cálcio extracelular (EGTA) ou do depletor dos estoques intracelulares de cálcio do retículo endoplasmático (thapsigargin) apresentaram redução na expressão de Mash1 e Ngn2, indicando que ambos são regulados pela sinalização de cálcio. A investigação dos canais de cálcio voltagem-dependentes demonstrou que o influxo de cálcio gerado por despolarização da membrana de NSC diferenciadas de CTE é decorrente da ativação de canais de cálcio voltagem-dependentes do tipo L. Além disso, esse influxo pode controlar o destino celular por estabilizar expressão de Mash1 e induzir a diferenciação neuronal por fosforilação e translocação do fator de transcrição CREB. Esses dados sugerem que os receptores P2X7, P2Y2, P2Y4 e canais de cálcio voltagem-dependentes do tipo L podem modular as oscilações espontâneas de cálcio durante a diferenciação neural e consequentemente alteram o padrão de expressão de Mash1 e Ngn2 favorecendo a decisão do destino celular neuronal.

Rhomboid intramembrane protease RHBDL4 triggers ER-export and non-canonical secretion of membrane-anchored TGFα

Rhomboid intramembrane proteases are the enzymes that release active epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) ligands in Drosophila and C. elegans, but little is known about their functions in mammals. Here we show that the mammalian rhomboid protease RHBDL4 (also known as Rhbdd1) promotes trafficking of several membrane proteins, including the EGFR ligand TGFα, from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to the Golgi apparatus, thereby triggering their secretion by extracellular microvesicles. Our data also demonstrate that RHBDL4-dependent trafficking control is regulated by G-protein coupled receptors, suggesting a role for this rhomboid protease in pathological conditions, including EGFR signaling. We propose that RHBDL4 reorganizes trafficking events within the early secretory pathway in response to GPCR signaling. Our work identifies RHBDL4 as a rheostat that tunes secretion dynamics and abundance of specific membrane protein cargoes.

Histopathology of histiocytic sarcoma in a colony of Sprague-Dawley rats : report /

Mode of access: Internet.

Three lenses into the cardiac dyad: calcium signaling, microtubule trafficking, and junctional sarcoplasmic reticular mobility

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Washington, 2016-06

Comparative proteomic analysis of GS-NSO murine myeloma cell lines with varying recombinant monoclonal antibody production rate

We have employed an inverse engineering strategy based on quantitative proteome analysis to identify changes in intracellular protein abundance that correlate with increased specific recombinant monoclonal antibody production (qMab) by engineered murine myeloma (NSO) cells. Four homogeneous NSO cell lines differing in qMab were isolated from a pool of primary transfectants. The proteome of each stably transfected cell line was analyzed at mid-exponential growth phase by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2D-PAGE) and individual protein spot volume data derived from digitized gel images were compared statistically. To identify changes in protein abundance associated with qMab clatasets were screened for proteins that exhibited either a linear correlation with cell line qMab or a conserved change in abundance specific only to the cell line with highest qMab. Several proteins with altered abundance were identified by mass spectrometry. Proteins exhibiting a significant increase in abundance with increasing qMab included molecular chaperones known to interact directly with nascent immunoglobulins during their folding and assembly (e.g., BiP, endoplasmin, protein disulfide isomerase). 2D-PAGE analysis showed that in all cell lines Mab light chain was more abundant than heavy chain, indicating that this is a likely prerequisite for efficient Mab production. In summary, these data reveal both the adaptive responses and molecular mechanisms enabling mammalian cells in culture to achieve high-level recombinant monoclonal antibody production. (C) 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Tracking the Mesozoic distribution of Gunnera: comparison with the fossil pollen species Tricolpites reticulatus Cookson

The morphology of the exine of Late Cretaceous and Tertiary specimens of Tricolpites reticulatus previously documented from Kerguelen, the Antarctic Peninsula, and the Otway Basin of southeastern Australia has been re-examined and compared with the three pollen types identified in the genus Gunnera. An Antarctic specimen of T reticulatus (Maastrichtian) has a uniform reticulum with elongated lumina, similar to that characterising pollen type 3a of Gunnera macrophylla (subgenus Pseudogunnera). Late Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) Australian specimens of T reticulatus differ; specimens from McNamara resemble pollen of subgenera Pseudogunnera and Milligania of type 3a or type 3b, while specimens of T reticulatus from Princes show more rounded and equidimensional lumina and are therefore tentatively attributed to pollen type 2 found in subgenera Gunnera, Misandra and Panke. Kerguelen Island T reticulatus (Miocene) are distinct from Vega Island specimens: a closer resemblance of Kerguelen T reticulatus and pollen type 2 of extant Gunnera is hypothesised. A comparison between specimens of the North American Tricolpites reticulatus/microreticulatus and pollen of Gunnera is also made. The clear similarity of the North American specimens of Tricolpites microreticulatus and pollen of Gunnera in shape and in the exine surface features of pollen suggests that this taxon should not be separated from T reticulatus but should be treated as a synonym of this species. (C) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Efficient developmental mis-targeting by the sporamin NTPP vacuolar signal to plastids in young leaves of sugarcane and Arabidopsis

Plant vacuoles are multi-functional, developmentally varied and can occupy up to 90% of plant cells. The N-terminal propeptide (NTPP) of sweet potato sporamin and the C-terminal propeptide (CTPP) of tobacco chitinase have been developed as models to target some heterologous proteins to vacuoles but so far tested on only a few plant species, vacuole types and payload proteins. Most studies have focused on lytic and protein-storage vacuoles, which may differ substantially from the sugar-storage vacuoles in crops like sugarcane. Our results extend the evidence that NTPP of sporamin can direct heterologous proteins to vacuoles in diverse plant species and indicate that sugarcane sucrose-storage vacuoles (like the lytic vacuoles in other plant species) are hostile to heterologous proteins. A low level of cytosolic NTPP-GFP (green fluorescent protein) was detectable in most cell types in sugarcane and Arabidopsis, but only Arabidopsis mature leaf mesophyll cells accumulated NTPP-GFP to detectable levels in vacuoles. Unexpectedly, efficient developmental mis-trafficking of NTPP-GFP to chloroplasts was found in young leaf mesophyll cells of both species. Vacuolar targeting by tobacco chitinase CTPP was inefficient in sugarcane, leaving substantial cytoplasmic activity of rat lysosomal beta-glucuronidase (GUS) [ER (endoplasmic reticulum)-RGUS-CTPP]. Sporamin NTPP is a promising targeting signal for studies of vacuolar function and for metabolic engineering. Such applications must take account of the efficient developmental mis-targeting by the signal and the instability of most introduced proteins, even in storage vacuoles.

Expression of caveolin-1 enhances cholesterol efflux in hepatic cells

HepG2 cells were stably transfected with human caveolin-1 (HepG2/cav cells). Transfection resulted in expression of caveolin-1 mRNA, a high abundance of caveolin-1 protein, and the formation of caveolae on the plasma membrane. Cholesterol efflux from HepG2/cav cells was 280 and 45% higher than that from parent HepG2 cells when human plasma and human apoA-I, respectively, were used as acceptors. The difference in efflux was eliminated by treatment of cells with progesterone. There was no difference in cholesterol efflux to cyclodextrin. Cholesterol efflux from plasma membrane vesicles was similar for the two cell types. Transfection led to a 40% increase in the amount of plasma membrane cholesterol in cholesterol-rich domains ( caveolae and/or rafts) and a 67% increase in the rate of cholesterol trafficking from intracellular compartments to these domains. Cholesterol biosynthesis in HepG2/cav cells was increased by 2-fold, and cholesterol esterification was reduced by 50% compared with parent HepG2 cells. The proliferation rate of transfected cells was significantly lower than that of non-transfected cells. Transfection did not affect expression of ABCA1 or the abundance of ABCA1 protein, but decreased secretion of apoA-I. We conclude that overexpression of caveolin-1 in hepatic cells stimulates cholesterol efflux by enhancing transfer of cholesterol to cholesterol-rich domains in the plasma membrane.

Selective stimulation of caveolar endocytosis by glycosphingolipids and cholesterol

Internalization of some plasma membrane constituents, bacterial toxins, and viruses occurs via caveolae; however, the factors that regulate caveolar internalization are still unclear. Here, we demonstrate that a brief treatment of cultured cells with natural or synthetic glycosphingolipids (GSLs) or elevation of cholesterol (either by acute treatment with mbeta-cyclodextrin/cholesterol or by alteration of growth conditions) dramatically stimulates caveolar endocytosis with little or no effect on other endocytic mechanisms. These treatments also stimulated the movement of GFP-labeled vesicles in cells transfected with caveolin-1-GFP and reduced the number of surface-connected caveolae seen by electron microscopy. In contrast, overexpression of caveolin-1 decreased caveolar uptake, but treatment with GSLs reversed this effect and stimulated caveolar endocytosis. Stimulation of caveolar endocytosis did not occur using ceramide or phosphatidylcholine and was not due to GSL degradation because similar results were obtained using a nonhydrolyzable GSL analog. Stimulated caveolar endocytosis required src kinase and PKC-alpha activity as shown by i) use of pharmacological inhibitors, ii) expression of kinase inactive src or dominant negative PKCalpha, and iii) stimulation of src kinase activity upon addition of GSLs or cholesterol. These results suggest that caveolar endocytosis is regulated by a balance of caveolin-1, cholesterol, and GSLs at the plasma membrane.

Association of stomatin with lipid bodies

The oligomeric lipid raft-associated integral protein stomatin normally localizes to the plasma membrane and the late endosomal compartment. Similar to the caveolins, it is targeted to lipid bodies (LBs) on overexpression. Endogenous stomatin also associates with LBs to a small extent. Green fluorescent protein-tagged stomatin (StomGFP) and the dominant-negative caveolin-3 mutant DGV(cav3)(HA) occupy distinct domains on LB surfaces but eventually intermix. Studies of StomGFP deletion mutants reveal that the region for membrane association but not oligomerization and raft association is essential for LB targeting. Blocking protein synthesis leads to the redistribution of StomGFP from LBs to LysoTracker-positive vesicles indicating a connection with the late endosomal/ lysosomal pathway. Live microscopy of StomGFP reveals multiple interactions between LBs and microtubule-associated vesicles possibly representing signaling events and/or the exchange of cargo. Proteomic analysis of isolated LBs identifies adipophilin and TIP47, various lipid-specific enzymes, cytoskeletal components, chaperones, Ras-related proteins, protein kinase D2, and other regulatory proteins. The association of the Rab proteins 1, 6, 7, 10, and 18 with LBs indicates various connections to other compartments. Our data suggest that LBs are not only involved in the storage of lipids but also participate actively in the cellular signaling network and the homeostasis of lipids.

Targeting of a tropomyosin isoform to short microfilaments associated with the Golgi complex

A growing body of evidence suggests that the Golgi complex contains an actin-based filament system. We have previously reported that one or more isoforms from the tropomyosin gene Tm5NM (also known as gamma-Tm), but not from either the alpha- or beta-Tm genes, are associated with Golgi-derived vesicles (Heimann et al., (1999). J. Biol. Chem. 274, 10743-10750). We now show that Tm5NM-2 is sorted specifically to the Golgi complex, whereas Tm5NM-1, which differs by a single alternatively spliced internal exon, is incorporated into stress fibers. Tm5NM-2 is localized to the Golgi complex consistently throughout the G1 phase of the cell cycle and it associates with Golgi membranes in a brefeldin A-sensitive and cytochalasin D-resistant manner. An actin antibody, which preferentially reacts with the ends of microfilaments, newly reveals a population of short actin filaments associated with the Golgi complex and particularly with Golgi-derived vesicles. Tm5NM-2 is also found on these short microfilaments. We conclude that an alternative splice choice can restrict the sorting of a tropomyosin isoform to short actin filaments associated with Golgi-derived vesicles. Our evidence points to a role for these Golgi-associated microfilaments in vesicle budding at the level of the Golgi complex.

GPI-Anchor synthesis: Ras takes charge

A new study shows that Ras2 regulates GPI-anchor synthesis in the ER. Reciprocally, the targeted enzyme GPI-GlcNAc transferase regulates Ras2 signal output. This novel intersection of Ras2 signaling and an ER-localized protein complex has interesting implications for Ras function.

Insulin and Oleate Promote Translocation of Inosine-5' Monophosphate Dehydrogenase to Lipid Bodies

In the present study we identify inosine-5' monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDH), a key enzyme in de novo guanine nucleotide biosynthesis, as a novel lipid body-associated protein. To identify new targets of insulin we performed a comprehensive 2-DE analysis of P-32-labelled proteins isolated from 3T3-L1 adipocytes (Hill et al. J Biol Chem 2000; 275: 24313-24320). IMPDH was identified by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry as a protein which was phosphorylated in a phosphatidylinositol (PI) 3-kinase-dependent manner upon insulin treatment. Although insulin had no significant effect on IMPDH activity, we observed translocation of IMPDH to lipid bodies following insulin treatment. Induction of lipid body formation with oleic acid promoted dramatic redistribution of IMPDH to lipid bodies, which appeared to be in contact with the endoplasmic reticulum, the site of lipid body synthesis and recycling. Inhibition of PI 3-kinase blocked insulin- and oleate-induced translocation of IMPDH and reduced oleate-induced lipid accumulation. However, we found no evidence of oleate-induced IMPDH phosphorylation, suggesting phosphorylation and translocation may not be coupled events. These data support a role for IMPDH in the dynamic regulation of lipid bodies and fatty acid metabolism and regulation of its activity by subcellular redistribution in response to extracellular factors that modify lipid metabolism.