Testing some myths about I.T. outsourcing : a survey of Australia's top 1000 firms

This study examines the extent to which surveyed outcomes of IT outsourcing supported several commonly-argued propositions. Following confirmatOl), factor analysis, eight measures of success were used: access to skilled staff, technology benefits, economies of scale, cost reductions, strategic benefits, technical service quality, capacity to concentrate on core business, and overall satisfaction/value. The analysis produced some surprising findings. Some widely-promoted benefits of outsourcing were reported by most respondents, but other benefits that have been similarly promoted (such as cost savings) were reported by only a minority of respondents. There were no differences in success outcomes between medium-sized «500 employees), large (500 to 1000 employees), and very large (1000+ employees) organizations. There were some minor differences between government agencies and finns from the private sector, but no differences for key outcomes. Contrary to findings from case study research, "selective" outsourcing was no more successful than "total" outsourcing, although "total" outsourcing was uncommon. On the basis of these results, decision makers are urged to be cautious when planning to outsource IT services, and to be critical of claims that they will make substantial savings from outsourcing, or that outsourcing will automatically allow them to refocus more on their core business.

Islamic religiosity, subjective well-being, and health

The aim of this paper is to explore the relationship between Islamic religiosity and satisfaction with a diverse range of life and health domains, in a sample of 2909 participants (1446 males, 1463 females) from Algeria. Factor analysis of the Islamic Religiosity Scale (IRS) indicates that it measures Religiosity as a multidimensional construct with two useful factors: Religious Practice and Religious Altruism. Religiosity at some level is ubiquitous through this sample, and it has a strong positive relationship with Subjective Well-Being (SWB). Moreover, this relationship is relatively unaffected by health deficiencies, even though such deficiencies generally have a negative influence on SWB scores. These findings are discussed in terms of the social context of Algeria.

Developing and validating a questionnaire to measure spirituality : a psychometric process

The purpose of the paper is to describe the processes undertaken to evaluate the psychometric properties of a questionnaire developed to measure spirituality and examine the relationship between spirituality and coping in young adults with diabetes.

The specific validation processes used were: content and face validity, construct validity using factor analysis, reliability and internal consistency using test-retest reliability and Cronbach’s alpha correlation coefficient.

The exploratory factor analysis revealed four factors: self-awareness, the importance of spiritual beliefs, spiritual practices, and spiritual needs. The items on the Spirituality Questionnaire (SQ) revealed factor loading ≥ 0.5. Reliability processes indicated that the SQ is reliable: Cronbach’s alpha 0.94 for the global SQ and between 0.80-0.91 for the four subscales. Test-retest statistic examination revealed stability of the responses at two time points 10 weeks apart.

The final questionnaire consists of 29 items and the psychometrics indicated that it is valid and reliable.

International well-being index : the Austrian version

The International Well-being Index (IWI) measures both personal and national well-being. It comprises two subscales: the Personal Well-being Index (PWI) and the National Well-being Index (NWI). The aim of this paper is to test the psychometric properties (validity and reliability) of the translated scale in Austria. Convergent validity is assessed using the Scales of Psychological Well-Being, the Satisfaction with Life Scale and the Positive and Negative Affect Scale. In addition, a Visual–Analog Scales capturing “satisfaction with life as a whole” was applied. The participants were 581 students of the Medical University Innsbruck (female: 47.7%; age: 23.2 ± 3.7). Internal consistency (Cronbach’s α) of the IWI was for both scales > .70 (PWI: .85; NWI: .83). The exploratory factor analysis of the IWI identified a 2-factor-structure identical with the two scales of the IWI explaining 54.2% of the variance. The convergent validity hypotheses were confirmed, construct validity was partly confirmed for the PWI being a deconstruction of a first factor called “satisfaction with life” (38.1% explained variance). Happy participants scored higher on the PWI (84.3 ± 7.9 vs. 68.7 ± 13.7; p < .001) and NWI (64.3 ± 15.8 vs. 57.9 ± 15.1; p < .001) scores than unhappy participants. It is concluded that the Austrian version of the IWI is a reliable and valid instrument to assess personal and national well-being. Further studies including a representative sample should be carried out on a recurring basis to use the IWI as an indicator for social science research in Austria.

Positive development in emerging adulthood

Positive functioning in the developmental period of emerging adulthood has received little investigation. The current study investigated components of positive development using confirmatory factor analysis of Australian Temperament Project data collected from 1,158 young adults aged 19-20 years. Positive development constructs that have been theoretically conceptualised were examined to test core concepts. Five first-order constructs were identified in this sample: Civic Action and Engagement, Social Competence, Life Satisfaction, Trust and Tolerance of Others, and Trust in Authorities and Organisations. A second-order positive development factor defined by these constructs provided good fit for the data. This model of positive development in emerging adulthood can provide an outcome measure that can then be used to investigate the developmental processes and pathways involved.

Prison officer's beliefs regarding self-harm in prisoners : an empirical investigation

The prevention of self-harm and suicide in prisoners depends on good interaction between the individual prisoner and prison staff. Staff perceptions of prisoner self-harm are likely to be a crucial factor influencing this interaction. The aim of the present study was to determine correctional officers' perception of the causes and functions of self-harm, and the effects of incident severity and repetitiveness on perceptions. A sample of 76 correctional officers was presented with a vignette depicting a self-harm in which the severity and repetitiveness of the incident was systematically altered. Officers' rated both the causes and functions of the behaviour. Four attributional dimensions were identified by factor analysis. These factors related primarily to personal factors about the individual prisoner. Staff perceived the functions of self-harm to be communicative rather than to commit suicide. Perceptions were not affected by severity or repetitiveness information, except for high severity leading to a greater perception of suicidal intent. Initiatives to help staff work more effectively and therapeutically with distressed prisoners are therefore likely to impact positively upon rates of self-harm.

The bipolar depression rating scale (BDRS) : its development, validation and utility

Objectives: Unipolar and bipolar depression differ neurobiologically and in clinical presentation. Existing depression rating instruments, used in bipolar depression, fail to capture the necessary phenomenological nuances, as they are based on and skewed towards the characteristics of unipolar depression. Both clinically and in research there is a growing need for a new observer-rated scale that is specifically designed to assess bipolar depression.

Methods: An instrument reflecting the characteristics of bipolar depression was drafted by the authors, and administered to 122 participants aged 18–65 (44 males and 78 females) with a diagnosis of DSM-IV bipolar disorder, who were currently experiencing symptoms of depression. The Bipolar Depression Rating Scale (BDRS) was administered together with the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAM-D), Montgomery Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) and Young Mania Rating Scale (YMRS).

Results: The BDRS has strong internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha = 0.917), and robust correlation coefficients with the MADRS (r = 0.906) and HAM-D (r = 0.744), and the mixed subscale correlated with the YMRS (r = 0.757). Exploratory factor analysis showed a three-factor solution gave the best account of the data. These factors corresponded to depression (somatic), depression (psychological) and mixed symptom clusters.

Conclusions: This study provides evidence for the validity of the BDRS for the measurement of depression in bipolar disorder. These results suggest good internal validity, provisional evidence of inter-rater reliability and strong correlations with other depression rating scales.

Expanding the concept of parental control : a role for overt and covert control in children’s snacking behaviour?

The existing literature on parental control and children’s diets is confusing. The present paper reports two studies to explore an expanded conceptualisation of parental control with a focus on overt control which ‘can be detected by the child’ and covert control which ‘cannot be detected by the child’. In study 1, 297 parents of children aged between 4 and 11 completed a measure of overt control and covert control alongside ratings of their child’s snacking behaviour as a means to assess who uses either overt or covert control and how these aspects of parental control relate to a child’s snacking behaviour. The results showed that lighter parents and those with children perceived as heavier were more likely to use covert control and those from a higher social class were more likely to use overt control. Further, whilst greater covert control predicted a decreased intake of unhealthy snacks, greater overt control predicted an increased intake of healthy snacks. In study 2, 61 parents completed the same measure of overt and covert control alongside the three control subscales of the Child Feeding Questionnaire [Birch, L.L., Fisher, J.O., Grimm-Thomas, Markey, C.N., Sawyer, R. (2001). Confirmatory factor analysis of the Child Feeding Questionnaire: A measure of parental attitudes, beliefs and practices about child feeding and obesity proneness. Appetite, 36, 201–210] to assess degrees of overlap between these measures. The results showed that although these five measures of control were all positively correlated, the correlations between the new and existing measures indicated a maximum of 21% shared variance suggesting that covert and overt control are conceptually and statistically separate from existing measures of control. To conclude, overt and covert control may be a useful expansion of existing ways to measure and conceptualise parental control. Further, these constructs may differentially relate to snacking behaviour which may help to explain some of the confusion in the literature.

Corporate codes of ethics in Australia, Canada and USA : measurement and structural properties of a cross-cultural model

The objective is to test the consistency of measurement and structural properties in a model of corporate codes of ethics (CCE) on an aggregated level and across multiple samples derived from three countries, namely Australia, Canada and the USA. The properties of four constructs of CCE are described and tested, these being: surveillance/training, internal communication, external communication, and guidance. The conclusion is that the measurement and structural models on an aggregated level have a satisfactory fit, validity and reliability. Furthermore, they are consistent when tested on each of the three samples (i.e. cross-validated). The cross-cultural model makes a contribution in addition to previous mostly descriptive studies and theory in the field using confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling.

A method for evaluating workplace utility

Acquiring office buildings that provide the required level of utility, and maintaining the buildings in that state, should be a priority for any organisation. Failure to do so may give rise to increased churn, reduced productivity, higher employee turnover, increased staff absenteeism and rising health care costs related to heightened stress. There is, however, no single measure of office building utility. Discusses the development of a valid and reliable scale for measuring the utility of public sector office buildings. Data collection involved the use of focus groups and an online survey of 1,800 building occupants. The findings suggest that the utility of public sector office buildings can be measured using a 22-item scale comprising four dimensions. The potential applications of the scale and its use in current research are examined.

Identifying the drivers behind housing preferences of first time owners

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to provide a rare insight into the motivation behind first-time buyers when looking to purchase their first home. The factors driving demand preferences for detached housing are constantly changing and difficult to measure, and often deemed to be a complex bundle of attributes.

Design/methodology/approach – The research in this paper is based on interviews with purchasers at a series of locations across Melbourne, Australia, who were actively seeking to purchase a home for the first time. The data were analysed using factor analysis to identify the core decision criteria in a new house that were most sought after.

Findings – The findings in this paper confirmed that “financial” issues accounted for approximately 30 percent of the actual decision by first-time buyers to purchase housing, where decisions relating to the timing and choice of housing are dependent on “site-specific” factors.

Research limitations/implications – The research in this paper is aimed specifically at first time buyers only and the influencing factors behind their purchasing decisions.

Practical implications – The paper shows that, if consideration is given to the characteristics that first-time owners are looking for, providers of new housing would be better equipped to meet this demand and maximise construction efficiency.

Originality/value – In the paper the emphasis was placed on identifying and analysing the decision criteria behind first-time buyers, which provided an invaluable insight into their concept of a suitable residence. Rather than analysing sales transactions after they have been completed, this research considers aspects of new houses that first-time owners are actively searching for, prior to making their purchase.

Internet and competitive advantage in Australian professional sport organisations

The electronic revolution has proven to be a powerful stimulus for change in business practice. As a business tool however, the Internet must endure the same scrutiny under which other business activities are placed. If the use of the Internet in business is a sound strategy, then it must contribute toward competitive advantage. The sport business industry has not been isolated from the vagaries of Internet applications. Moreover, as the industry has become more competitive, forcing sporting organisations towards unprecedented levels of accountability and business practice, the Internet has been increasingly seen as a potential 'holy grail' for sport organisations struggling for revenue (Stewart & Smith, 1999). This research is a response to these pressures. It seeks to identify Internet based opportunities for competitive advantage, and to provide strategies and recommendations for the successful use of the Internet in Australian professional sport organisations. In realising this objective, a newly developed and integrated Business Activity Model has been constructed. The model assists in the identification of specific Internet based competitive advantage strategies, and provides a theoretical framework for this research. The Business Activity Model conceptualises, for the first time, the relationships between the value chain, constituents of electronically enabled competitive advantage, and the Internet. With Australia's limited group of fully professional sports capable of sustaining the human resources and budgets necessary to implement comprehensive e-commerce strategies, the organisations selected to participate in this research represent the pinnacle of Australian professional sport clubs. Specifically, the 55 clubs competing in the Australian Football League (A.F.L.), National Basketball League (N.B.L.), National Rugby League (N.R.L.), and National Soccer League (N.S.L.) constituted the research sample and population. In concert with the 87% participation rate, sampling approached a census. A telephone-administered survey, based primarily on the rigorously tested instrument developed by Sethi and King (1994), was employed for data collection. This research employs a comprehensive set of descriptive statistics, and is bolstered by a confirmatory and an exploratory factor analysis, undertaken on one component of the data. The outcome of this research was the identification of seven practical recommendations for Australian professional sport organisations seeking to improve competitive advantage via the Internet. These recommendations were based on an inventory of the 'gaps' between the strategies proposed by the literature, and the practices of the sample, and relate to both overall Internet strategy, and specific web site applications. The development of the new Business Activity Model and the identification of key online strategy themes support and complement these recommendations. An examination of variations in the practices of participating organisations, and some comparisons against United States sporting organisations, also provides depth and context to the findings. This research provides a platform for sport managers to effectively harness the potential of the Internet, through their web sites in particular, and realise significant competitive advantages. The Business Activity Model provides managers in all industries with a tool for the detection and understanding of potential elements of competitive advantage, and incorporates all activities critical to business in the new digital economy. Seven practical recommendations for improved online performance based on identified competitive advantage and strategies fulfils the primary objective of this research. E-commerce continues to grow at astronomical rates, and with the Internet poised to become the life-blood of 21st century sporting organisations, these recommendations will assist managers in their ongoing search for competitive advantage.

Comparison in studying approaches of first-year Australian and overseas Chinese university students

This research investigates the studying approaches of first-year Australian and overseas Chinese university students. It is also designed to determine the robustness of Entwistle and Ramsden's (1983) Approaches to Studying Inventory (ASI). Two hundred and two first-year Australian students and two hundred and forth eight first-year overseas Chinese students, drawn from Deakin University and Swinburne University of Technology, were tested using the ASL The data obtained from the two groups were subjected to factor analysis (with orthogonal rotation). For Australian students, a four-factor structure in studying approaches, which accounts for 55.6% of the total variance, was obtained. The factors are Meaning Orientation; Non-Academic Orientation; Anxious-Rigid Orientation; and Goal Orientation. For overseas Chinese students, a three-factor structure in studying approaches which accounts for 52.8% of the total variance was obtained. The factors are Anxious-Surface Orientation; Self-Motivated, Reflective Orientation; and Efficiency Orientation, Cattell's (1949) salient similarity S index indicates a close resemblance between factors obtained for Australian students and the original factors obtained by Entwistle and Ramsden (1983). Similarities are also indicated between factors obtained for Australian and overseas Chinese students* Two main conclusions are drawn. First, the studying approaches of first-year Australian and overseas Chinese university students are described by different factor structures in learning. Second, Entwistle and Ramsden's (1983) Approaches to Studying Inventory is a robust tool from which reliable and meaningful factors in student studying approaches can be obtained. Several implications of the research findings are discussed.

Succession of small mammal communities after fire and reintroduction of the swamp antechinus 'Antechinus minimus'

This thesis is involved with changes that have occurred to small mammal populations following a major disturbance in the Anglesea region as a result of the 1983 Ash Wednesday fires. Fire, with its effects on spatial and temporal heterogeneity, was found to be an important factor in the maintenance of vegetation and small mammal community structure and diversity in the region. Successional changes in vegetation and small mammal communities were described by multivariate analyses, using data collected annually from 22 study sites. The use of factor analysis techniques, in reducing the annual capture data content, enabled long-term changes in the structure of mammal communities to be interpreted. The small mammal communities in the coastal heath and forest vegetation in the Anglesea region show evidence of a general resilience, (the degree and speed of recovery), to disturbance. Two phases of successional response to fire by mammal species have been proposed; a ‘re-establishment’ phase which occurs in the initial 5-6 years post-fire and is accompanied by rapid increase in species’ abundance, and a subsequent ‘maintenance’ phase accompanied by relatively minor changes in abundance. Habitat Suitability Indices were produced relating to these phases. Vertical density measures of understorey shrubs and herb layers showed significant relationships with small mammal species abundance at the study sites. Long term studies following major disturbances are needed to distinguish between short term recovery of plant and animal species and long term changes in these species. Studies extending over a number of years enable a better directional view of changes in small mammal communities than can be determined from . observations made over a short period. As a part of the investigation into temporal change, it was proposed to undertake trial reintroductions of the Swamp antechinus, Ant echinus minimus, a marsupial dasyurid species which was trapped in the area prior to the 1983 fire, but rarely subsequently. Other more commonly observed native small mammal species (e.g. Rattus fuscipes,R. lutreolus, Antechinus stuartii, Sminthopsis leucopus) had re-invaded the proposed reintroduction site after this fire. Failure of A. minimus to re-establish may have been due to spatial separation of the pre-fire populations coupled with the extensive area burnt in 1983, A source population of the species was located about 100km to the west and habitat utilization and interspecific and niche relationships between the species making the small mammal community explored. Discriminant analysis revealed some spatial separation of species within a habitat based on structural vegetation factors rather than floristic factors. Temporal separation of species was observed, asA. minimus were more active than Rattus species during daylight periods. There was evidence of micro-habitat selection by species, and structural vegetation factors were most commonly identified in statistical analyses as contributing towards selection by small mammal species. Following a theoretical modelling study three reintroduction trials were carried out near Anglesea during 1992-94. Individuals were subsequently radio tracked, and habitat relationships between the species in the small mammal community investigated. Although successful breeding of A, minimus occurred during the latter two trials, the subsequent fate of offspring was not determined. Invasive techniques required to adequately monitor young animals were considered potentially too damaging. Telemetry studies indicated a preference of A. minimus for short, wet heath vegetation. Structural vegetation factors were identified as being significant in discriminating between capture locations of species. Small scale and inexpensive trial reintroductions have yielded valuable additional data on this species and may be viewed as a useful tool in the conservation of other small native mammals.

Investigation of educator adoption of knowledge media

Human development has occurred against a timeline that has seen the creation of and diffusion of one innovation after another. These innovations range from language to complex computing and information technologies. The latter are assisting with the distribution of information, and extend to the distribution of the human species beyond the planet Earth. From early times, information has been published and mostly for a fee to the publisher. The absorption and use of information has had a high priority in most societies from early times, and has become institutionalised in universities and institutes of technical learning. For most in Western societies, education is now a matter of ‘lifelong learning’. Today, we see higher education institutions, worldwide, adapting their organisational structures and operating procedures and forming strategic alliances with communications content providers and carriers as well as with information technology companies. Modern educational institutes seek productivity and efficiency. Many also seek to differentiate themselves from competitors. Technological convergence is often seen by management to be a saviour in many educational organisations. It is hoped that lower capital and recurrent costs can be achieved, and that competitors in an increasingly globalised industry can be held at bay by strategic use of knowledge media (Eisenstadt, 1995) commonly associated with distance education in the campus setting. Knowledge media set up costs, intellectual property costs and training costs for staff and students are often so high as to make their use not viable for Australian institutes of higher education. Against this backdrop, one might expect greater educator and student use of publisher produced textbooks and digital enhancements to the textbook, particularly those involved in distance education. A major issue is whether or not the timing of instructor adoption of converging information technology and communications technologies aligns with the wishes of both higher education management and government, and with those who seek commercial gain from the diffusion and adoption of such technologies. Also at issue is whether or not it is possible to explain variance in stated intentions to recommend adoption of new learning technologies in higher education and implementation. Will there occur educator recommendation for adoption of individual knowledge media such as World Wide Web access to study materials by students? And what will be the form of this tool and others used in higher education? This thesis reports on more recent changes in the technological environment and seeks to contribute to an understanding of the factors that lead to a willingness, or unwillingness, on the part of higher education instructors, as influencers and content providers, to utilise these technologies. As such, it is a diffusion study which seeks to fill a gap in the literature. Diffusion studies typically focus on predicting adoption based on characteristics of the potential adopter. Few studies examine the relationship between characteristics of the innovation and adoption. Nearly all diffusion studies involve what is termed discontinuous innovation (Robertson, 1971). That is, the innovation involves adoptees in a major departure from previous practice. This study seeks to examine the relationship between previous experience of related technologies and adoption or rejection of dynamically continuous innovation. Continuous and dynamically continuous innovations are the most numerous in the real world, yet they are numerically the least scrutinised by way of academic research. Moreover, the three-year longitudinal study of educators in Australian and New Zealand meets important criteria laid down by researchers Tornatzky and Klein (1982) and Rogers (1995), that are often not met by similar studies. In particular the study examines diffusion as it is unfolding, rather than selectively examining a single innovation and after the fact, thus avoiding a possible pro-innovation bias. The study examines the situation for both ‘all educators’ and ‘marketing / management educators’ alone in seeking to meet the following aim: Establish if intended adopters of specific knowledge media have had more experience of other computer-based technologies than have those not intending to adopt said knowledge media. The analytical phase entails use of factor analysis and discriminant analysis to conclude that it is possible to discriminate adopters of selected knowledge media based on previous use of related technologies. The study does not find any generalised factor that enables such discrimination among educators. Thus the study supports the literature in part, but fails to find generalised factors that enable unambiguous prediction of knowledge media adoption or otherwise among each grouping of educators examined. The implications are that even in the case of related products and services (continuous or dynamically continuous innovation), there is not statistical certainty that prior usage of related products or technologies is related to intentions to use knowledge media in the future. In this regard, the present study might be said to confirm the view that Rogers and Shoemaker's (1971) conceptualisation of perceived innovation characteristics may only apply to discontinuous innovations (Stratton, Lumpkin & Vitell, 1997). The implications for stakeholders such as higher education management is that when seeking to appoint new educators or existing staff to knowledge media project teams, there is some support for the notion that those who already use World Wide Web based technologies are likely to take these technologies into teaching situations. The same claim cannot be made for computer software use in general, nor Internet use in general.