CFD modelling of wind farms in complex terrain

Modelling of entire wind farms in flat and complex terrain using a full 3D Navier–Stokes solver for incompressible flow is presented in this paper. Numerical integration of the governing equations is performed using an implicit pressure correction scheme, where the wind turbines (W/Ts) are modelled as momentum absorbers through their thrust coefficient. The k–ω turbulence model, suitably modified for atmospheric flows, is employed for closure. A correction is introduced to account for the underestimation of the near wake deficit, in which the turbulence time scale is bounded using a general “realizability” constraint for the fluctuating velocities. The second modelling issue that is discussed in this paper is related to the determination of the reference wind speed for the thrust calculation of the machines. Dealing with large wind farms and wind farms in complex terrain, determining the reference wind speed is not obvious when a W/T operates in the wake of another WT and/or in complex terrain. Two alternatives are compared: using the wind speed value at hub height one diameter upstream of the W/T and adopting an induction factor-based concept to overcome the utilization of a wind speed at a certain distance upwind of the rotor. Application is made in two wind farms, a five-machine one located in flat terrain and a 43-machine one located in complex terrain.

Validation of a CFD wake model based on the actuator disk technique and the thrust coefficient. Preliminary results

A simplified CFD wake model based on the actuator-disk concept is used to simulate the wind turbine, represented by an actuator disk upon which a distribution of forces, defined as axial momentum sources, are applied on the incoming flow. The rotor is supposed to be uniformly loaded, with the exerted forces as a function of the incident wind speed, the thrust coefficient and the rotor diameter. The model is validated through experimental measurements downwind of a wind turbine in terms of wind speed deficit. Validation on turbulence intensity will also be made in the near future.

Prediction of wake effects on wind farm power production using a RANS approach. Part II. Offshore: Case studies from the UPWIND project

The estimation of power losses due to wind turbine wakes is crucial to understanding overall wind farm economics. This is especially true for large offshore wind farms, as it represents the primary source of losses in available power, given the regular arrangement of rotors, their generally largerdiameter and the lower ambient turbulence level, all of which conspire to dramatically affect wake expansion and, consequently, the power deficit. Simulation of wake effects in offshore wind farms (in reasonable computational time) is currently feasible using CFD tools. An elliptic CFD model basedon the actuator disk method and various RANS turbulence closure schemes is tested and validated using power ratios extracted from Horns Rev and Nysted wind farms, collected as part of the EU-funded UPWIND project. The primary focus of the present work is on turbulence modeling, as turbulent mixing is the main mechanism for flow recovery inside wind farms. A higher-order approach, based on the anisotropic RSM model, is tested to better take into account the imbalance in the length scales inside and outside of the wake, not well reproduced by current two-equation closure schemes.

Modelling wake effects in large wind farms in complex terrain: the problem, the methods and the issues

Computational fluid dynamic (CFD) methods are used in this paper to predict the power production from entire wind farms in complex terrain and to shed some light into the wake flow patterns. Two full three-dimensional Navier–Stokes solvers for incompressible fluid flow, employing k − ϵ and k − ω turbulence closures, are used. The wind turbines are modeled as momentum absorbers by means of their thrust coefficient through the actuator disk approach. Alternative methods for estimating the reference wind speed in the calculation of the thrust are tested. The work presented in this paper is part of the work being undertaken within the UpWind Integrated Project that aims to develop the design tools for next generation of large wind turbines. In this part of UpWind, the performance of wind farm and wake models is being examined in complex terrain environment where there are few pre-existing relevant measurements. The focus of the work being carried out is to evaluate the performance of CFD models in large wind farm applications in complex terrain and to examine the development of the wakes in a complex terrain environment.

Plasma kinetics issues in an ESA study for a plasma laboratory in space

A study supported by the European Space Agency (ESA), in the context of its General Studies Programme, performed an investigation of the possible use of space for studies in pure and applied plasma physics, in areas not traditionally covered by ‘space plasma physics’. A set of experiments have been identified that can potentially provide access to new phenomena and to allow advances in several fields of plasma science. These experiments concern phenomena on a spatial scale (101–104 m) intermediate between what is achievable on the ground and the usual solar system plasma observations. Detailed feasibility studies have been performed for three experiments: active magnetic experiments, largescale discharges and long tether–plasma interactions. The perspectives opened by these experiments are discussed for magnetic reconnection, instabilities, MHD turbulence, atomic excited states kinetics, weakly ionized plasmas,plasma diagnostics, artificial auroras and atmospheric studies. The discussion is also supported by results of numerical simulations and estimates.

Magnetic pumping of whistler waves by tether current modulation

Magnetic excitation of whistlers by a square array of electrodynamic tethers is discussed. The array is made of perpendicular rows of tethers that carry equal, uniform, and time-modulated currents at equal frequency with a 90° phase shift. The array would fly vertical in the orbital equatorial plane, which is perpendicular to the geomagnetic field B0 when its tilt is ignored. The array radiates a whistler wave along B0. A parametric instability due to pumping by the background magnetic field through the radiated wave gives rise to two unstable coupled whistler perturbations. The growth rate is maximum for perturbations with wave vector at angles 38.36° and 75.93° from B0. For an experiment involving a wavefront that moves with the orbiting array, which might serve to study nonlinear wave interactions and turbulence in space plasmas, characteristic values of growth rate and parameters, such as the number of tethers and their dimensions and distances in the array, are discussed for low Earth orbit ambient conditions.

Empirical and analytical study of instabilities in hybrid optical bistable systems

As it is well known from the work by Gibbs et al., optical turbulence and periodic oscillations are easily seen in hybrid optical bistable devices when a delay is added to the feedback. Such effects, as it was pointed out by Gibbs, may be used to convert cw laser power into a train of light pulses.

Pressure measurements of the detachment bubble on the Bolund Island

Pressure measurements on the surface of a 1:230 scale model of Bolund Island are presented. The model is smooth and no boundary layer generation has been considered since the experiment is designed as the simplest possible reference case. Measurement have been taken for a range of Reynolds numbers based on the average undisturbed wind speed U? and the maximum height of the island, h [1.7×104 , 8.5×104], and for a range of wind directions. Four minutes time series of pressure in more than 400 points have been acquired and analysed to obtain the spatial distribution of both the time average and the variance of the pressure signal. The horizontal extension of the detachment bubble for the different Reynolds numbers and wind directions is identified by isobars and curves of constant value of pressure variance. The applicability of this technique for evaluating the horizontal topology of high turbulence regions associated to detachment bubbles after escarpments in potential wind farm sites is analysed. The results obtained shows that the behaviour of the mean pressure coefficient, Cp, the std. pressure coefficient, C?p, and the skewness of the pressure, Sp can be used to study the bubble over the island to a certain extent. This experiment is part of the set of different analysis on the Bolund test case that is being undertaken within WAUDIT project by the different scientific groups.

Estudio numérico de flujo turbulento cargado con partículas sólidas a través de canales y tuberías de sección variable

La presente Tesis Doctoral tiene como objetivo el estudio de flujo turbulento cargado con partículas sólidas a través de canales y tuberías de sección constante usando un enfoque Euleriano-Lagrangiano. El campo de flujo de la fase de transporte (aire) se resuelve usando simulación de grandes escalas (LES), implementada en un programa de volúmenes finitos mientras que las ecuaciones gobernantes de la fase dispersa son resueltas por medio de un algoritmo de seguimiento Lagrangiano de partículas que ha sido desarrollado y acoplado al programa que resuelve el flujo. Se estudia de manera sistemática y progresiva la interacción fluido→partícula (one-way coupling), a través de diferentes configuraciones geométricas en coordenadas cartesianas (canales de sección constante y variable) y en coordenadas cilíndricas (tuberías de sección constante y sección variable) abarcando diferentes números de Reynolds y diferentes tamaños de partículas; todos los resultados obtenidos han sido comparados con datos publicados previamente. El estudio de flujo multifásico a través de, tuberías de sección variable, ha sido abordada en otras investigaciones mayoritariamente de forma experimental o mediante simulación usando modelos de turbulencia menos complejos y no mediante LES. El patrón de flujo que se verifica en una tubería con expansión es muy complejo y dicha configuración geométrica se halla en múltiples aplicaciones industriales que involucran el transporte de partículas sólidas, por ello es de gran interés su estudio. Como hecho innovador, en esta tesis no solo se resuelven las estadísticas de velocidad del fluido y las partículas en tuberías con diferentes tamaños de expansión y diferentes regímenes de flujo sino que se caracteriza, usando diversas formulaciones del número de Stokes y el parámetro de arrastre, el ingreso y acumulación de partículas dentro de la zona de recirculación, obteniéndose resultados coincidentes con datos experimentales. ABSTRACT The objective of this Thesis research is to study the turbulent flow laden with solid particles through channels and pipes with using Eulerian-Lagrangian approach. The flow field of the transport phase (air ) is solved using large eddy simulation ( LES ) implemented in a program of finite volume while the governing equations of the dispersed phase are resolved by means of a particle Lagrangian tracking algorithm which was developed and coupled to principal program flow solver . We studied systematically and progressively the fluid interaction → particle ( one- way coupling ) , through different geometric configurations in Cartesian coordinates ( channel with constant and variable section) and in cylindrical coordinates ( pipes with constant section and variable section ) covering different Reynolds numbers and different particle sizes, all results have been compared with previously published data . The study of multiphase flow through, pipes with variable section has been addressed in other investigations predominantly experimentally or by simulation using less complex models and no turbulence by LES. The flow pattern is verified in a pipe expansion is very complex and this geometry is found in many industrial applications involving the transport of solid particles, so it is of great interest to study. As an innovator fact , in this Thesis not only finds fluid velocity statistics and particles with different sizes of pipe expansion and different flow regimes but characterized, using various formulations of the Stokes number and the drag parameter are resolved, the entry and accumulation of particles within the recirculation zone , matching results obtained with experimental data.

Laminar-turbulent transition induced by a discrete roughness element in a supersonic boundary layer

The linear instability and breakdown to turbulence induced by an isolated roughness element in a boundary layer at Mach 2:5, over an isothermal flat plate with laminar adiabatic wall temperature, have been analysed by means of direct numerical simulations, aided by spatial BiGlobal and three-dimensional parabolized (PSE-3D) stability analyses. It is important to understand transition in this flow regime since the process can be slower than in incompressible flow and is crucial to prediction of local heat loads on next-generation flight vehicles. The results show that the roughness element, with a height of the order of the boundary layer displacement thickness, generates a highly unstable wake, which is composed of a low-velocity streak surrounded by a three-dimensional high-shear layer and is able to sustain the rapid growth of a number of instability modes. The most unstable of these modes are associated with varicose or sinuous deformations of the low-velocity streak; they are a consequence of the instability developing in the three-dimensional shear layer as a whole (the varicose mode) or in the lateral shear layers (the sinuous mode). The most unstable wake mode is of the varicose type and grows on average 17% faster tan the most unstable sinuous mode and 30 times faster than the most unstable boundary layer mode occurring in the absence of a roughness element. Due to the high growthrates registered in the presence of the roughness element, an amplification factor of N D 9 is reached within 50 roughness heights from the roughness trailing edge. The independently performed Navier–Stokes, spatial BiGlobal and PSE-3D stability results are in excellent agreement with each other, validating the use of simplified theories for roughness-induced transition involving wake instabilities. Following the linear stages of the laminar–turbulent transition process, the roll-up of the three-dimensional shear layer leads to the formation of a wedge of turbulence, which spreads laterally at a rate similar to that observed in the case of compressible turbulent spots for the same Mach number.

Finite volume modelling of an icefield with subglacial lake

Momentum, mass and energy balance laws provide the tools for the study of the evolution of an icefield covering a subglacial lake. The ice is described as a non-Newtonian fluid with a power-law constitutive relationship with temperature- and stress-dependent viscosity (Glen?s law) [1]. The phase transition mechanisms at the air/ice and ice/water interfaces yield moving boundary formulations, and lake hydrodynamics requires equation reduction for treating the turbulence.

Estudio en modelo físico a escala reducida de la viabilidad del empleo de buques fondeados como diques flotantes para abrigo portuario y defensa de costas

Los diques flotantes son estructuras que atenúan la energía del oleaje fundamentalmente por reflexión y turbulencia. Aunque presentan importantes ventajas en términos constructivos y medioambientales, su efectividad es limitada y en la práctica sólo se emplean en condiciones climáticas propias de zonas con oleajes poco energéticos. Por otro lado, el buque es la estructura flotante por excelencia y su empleo para el abrigo portuario y costero en determinadas situaciones puede aportar las ventajas propias de los diques flotantes, al tiempo que ampliar el rango de oleajes frente a los que estas estructuras son efectivas. El propósito de esta Tesis Doctoral es evaluar la viabilidad del empleo de buques fondeados como diques flotantes para el abrigo portuario y costero. Para ello, se han realizado ensayos en modelo físico a escala reducida en un canal de oleaje del Centro de Estudios de Puertos y Costas (CEPYC), con el objeto de determinar los coeficientes de transmisión (Ct), reflexión (Cr) y disipación (Cd) de barcos de diversas tipologías y dimensiones, sometidos a diferentes oleajes en distintas situaciones de carga, fondeo y profundidad del emplazamiento. La efectividad de los buques empleados en los ensayos se ha determinado mediante el análisis de dichos coeficientes y su variación con la altura de ola y el periodo de los oleajes incidentes. Además, se han registrado las fuerzas existentes en las cadenas de fondeo con objeto de comprobar la viabilidad del mismo y facilitar una estimación del diámetro de las cadenas que serían necesarias en cada situación. Posteriormente, se han aplicado los resultados obtenidos en los ensayos en modelo físico reducido a dos situaciones de abrigo portuario y costero. La primera aplicación consiste en el empleo de buques como defensa temporal en fases constructivas por medios marítimos, partiendo de la hipótesis de que, actuando como diques flotantes, puede proteger la zona de la obra y ampliar las ventanas temporales de periodos de actividad en obra marítima. Las actividades que se han analizado son las de dragado de fondos, vertidos de material granular y transporte y fondeo de cajones flotantes para diques y muelles. La segunda aplicación estudiada es el empleo de buques para la protección costera y la formación de salientes y tómbolos. Los coeficientes de transmisión obtenidos se han introducido en formulaciones analíticas que permiten prever la evolución de la costa frente a la protección procurada por el buque actuando como dique flotante exento. Finalmente se han redactado las conclusiones de la investigación y se han propuesto nuevas líneas de investigación relacionadas con esta Tesis Doctoral. Floating breakwaters are structures which attenuate wave energy mainly by reflection and turbulence. They display advantages in terms of construction and ecology, amongst others. However, their use is restricted in practice to certain areas with good climatic conditions and low energy waves. Moreover, ships are the most common floating structures and their use for port and coastal shelter in certain situations could widen the range of applicability in addition to the rest of advantages of floating breakwaters. The purpose of this research is to assess the feasibility of ships anchored as floating breakwaters for port and coastal protection. To that end, tests in a scaled down physical model have been conducted in a wave flume in the Centre of Port and Coastal Studies (CEPYC), in order to determine the transmission (Ct), reflection (Cr) and dissipation (Cd) coefficients of ships of diverse types and dimensions, under different wave, load, anchoring and depth conditions. The effectiveness of the several ships used in the tests has been determined by analyzing these coefficients and their variation with the wave height and period of the incident waves. In addition, the existing forces in the anchor chains have been registered to verify the feasibility of the anchoring systems, as well as to provide an estimation of the diameter of the chains that would be needed in each situation. Subsequently, the results of the tests have been applied to two situations of port and coastal protection. The first one is the use of ships as a temporary defense for maritime works with construction phases by maritime means, on the assumption that, acting as floating breakwaters, they can protect the work area and increase the time windows of periods of activity in maritime works. Dredging, dumping of granular material and transport and positioning of big concrete caissons for docks and breakwaters were the activities analyzed. The second situation is the use of ships for coastal protection and forming salients of sand or tombolos. Some analytical formulations which take into account the transmission coefficients from the tests have been used to predict the evolution of the coastline under the protection given by the ships acting as detached floating breakwaters. Finally, the conclusions of the research have been addressed and the proposal of new lines of work related to the topic has been made.

Wind tunnel analysis of the flow topology over complex topographies

El principal objetivo de este trabajo es aportar conocimiento para contestar la pregunta: ¿hasta que punto los ensayos en túnel aerodinámico pueden contribuir a determinar las características que afectan la respuesta dinámica de los aerogeneradores operando en terreno complejo?. Esta pregunta no es nueva, de hecho, el debate en la comunidad científica comenzó en el primer tercio del siglo pasado y aún está intensamente vivo. El método generalmente aceptado para enfrentar el mencionado problema consiste en analizar un caso de estudio determinado en el cual se aplican tanto ensayos a escala real como análisis computacionales y ensayos en túnel aerodinámico. Esto no es ni fácil ni barato. Esta es la razón por la cual desde el experimento de Askervein en 1988, los modelizadores del flujo atmosférico tuvieron que esperar hasta 2007 a que el experimento de Bolund fuese puesto en marcha con un despliegue de medios técnicos equivalentes (teniendo en cuenta la evolución de las tecnologías de sensores y computación). El problema contempla tantos aspectos que ambas experiencias fueron restringidas a condiciones de atmósfera neutra con efectos de Coriolis despreciables con objeto de reducir la complejidad. Este es el contexto en el que se ha desarrollado la presente tesis doctoral. La topología del flujo sobre la isla de Bolund ha sido estudiada mediante la reproducción del experimento de Bolund en los túneles aerodinámicos A9 y ACLA16 del IDR. Dos modelos de la isla de Bolund fueron fabricados a dos escalas, 1:230 y 1:115. El flujo de entrada en el túnel aerodinámico simulando la capa límite sin perturbar correspondía a régimen de transición (transitionally rough regime) y fue usado como situación de referencia. El modelo a escala 1:230 fue ensayado en el túnel A9 para determinar la presión sobre su superficie. La distribución del coeficiente de presión sobre la isla proporcionó una visualización y estimación de una región de desprendimiento sobre el pequeño acantilado situado al frente de la misma. Las medidas de presión instantánea con suficiente grado de resolución temporal pusieron de manifiesto la no estacionariedad en la región de desprendimiento. El modelo a escala 1:115 fue ensayado utilizando hilo caliente de tres componentes y un sistema de velocimetría por imágenes de partículas de dos componentes. El flujo fue caracterizado por el ratio de aceleración, el incremento normalizado de energía cinética turbulenta y los ángulos de inclinación y desviación horizontal. Los resultados a lo largo de la dirección 270°y alturas de 2 m y 5 m presentaron una gran similitud con los resultados a escala real del experimento de Bolund. Los perfiles verticales en las localizaciones de las torres meteorológicas mostraron un acuerdo significativo con los resultados a escala real. El análisis de los esfuerzos de Reynolds y el análisis espectral en las localizaciones de los mástiles meteorológicos presentaron niveles de acuerdo variados en ciertas posiciones, mientras que en otras presentaron claras diferencias. El mapeo horizontal del flujo, para una dirección de viento de 270°, permitió caracterizar el comportamiento de la burbuja intermitente de recirculación sobre el pequeño acantilado existente al frente de la isla así como de la región de relajación y de la capa de cortadura en la región corriente abajo de Bolund. Se realizaron medidas de velocidad con alta resolución espacial en planos perpendiculares a la dirección del flujo sin perturbar. Estas medidas permitieron detectar y caracterizar una estructura de flujo similar a un torbellino longitudinal con regiones con altos gradientes de velocidad y alta intensidad de turbulencia. Esta estructura de flujo es, sin duda, un reto para los modelos computacionales y puede considerarse un factor de riesgo para la operación de los aerogeneradores. Se obtuvieron y analizaron distribuciones espaciales de los esfuerzos de Reynolds mediante 3CHW y PIV. Este tipo de parámetros no constituyen parte de los resultados habituales en los ensayos en túnel sobre topografías y son muy útiles para los modelizadores que utilizan simulación de grades torbellinos (LES). Se proporciona una interpretación de los resultados obtenidos en el túnel aerodinámico en términos de utilidad para los diseñadores de parques eólicos. La evolución y variación de los parámetros del flujo a lo largo de líneas, planos y superficies han permitido identificar como estas propiedades del flujo podrían afectar la localización de los aerogeneradores y a la clasificación de emplazamientos. Los resultados presentados sugieren, bajo ciertas condiciones, la robustez de los ensayos en túnel para estudiar la topología sobre terreno complejo y su comparabilidad con otras técnicas de simulación, especialmente considerando el nivel de acuerdo del conjunto de resultados presentados con los resultados a escala real. De forma adicional, algunos de los parámetros del flujo obtenidos de las medidas en túnel son difícilmente determinables en ensayos a escala real o por medios computacionales, considerado el estado del arte. Este trabajo fue realizado como parte de las actividades subvencionadas por la Comisión Europea como dentro del proyecto FP7-PEOPLE-ITN-2008WAUDIT (Wind Resource Assessment Audit and Standardization) dentro de la FP7 Marie-Curie Initial Training Network y por el Ministerio Español de Economía y Competitividad dentro del proyecto ENE2012-36473, TURCO (Determinación en túnel aerodinámico de la distribución espacial de parámetros estadísticos de la turbulencia atmosférica sobre topografías complejas) del Plan Nacional de Investigación (Subprograma de investigación fundamental no orientada 2012). El informe se ha organizado en siete capítulos y un conjunto de anexos. En el primer capítulo se introduce el problema. En el capítulo dos se describen los medios experimentales utilizados. Seguidamente, en el capítulo tres, se analizan en detalle las condiciones de referencia del principal túnel aerodinámico utilizado en esta investigación. En el capítulo tres se presentan resultados de ensayos de presión superficial sobre un modelo de la isla. Los principales resultados del experimento de Bolund se reproducen en el capítulo cinco. En el capítulo seis se identifican diferentes estructuras del flujo sobre la isla y, finalmente, en el capitulo siete, se recogen las conclusiones y una propuesta de lineas de trabajo futuras. ABSTRACT The main objective of this work is to contribute to answer the question: to which extend can the wind tunnel testing contribute to determine the flow characteristics that affect the dynamic response of wind turbines operating in highly complex terrains?. This question is not new, indeed, the debate in the scientific community was opened in the first third of the past century and it is still intensely alive. The accepted approach to face this problem consists in analysing a given case study where full-scale tests, computational modelling and wind tunnel testing are applied to the same topography. This is neither easy nor cheap. This is is the reason why since the Askervein experience in 1988, the atmospheric flow modellers community had to wait till 2007 when the Bolund experiment was setup with a deployment of technical means equivalent (considering the evolution of the sensor and computing techniques). The problem is so manifold that both experiences were restricted to neutral conditions without Coriolis effects in order to reduce the complexity. This is the framework in which this PhD has been carried out. The flow topology over the Bolund Island has been studied by replicating the Bolund experiment in the IDR A9 and ACLA16 wind tunnels. Two mock-ups of the Bolund island were manufactured at two scales of 1:230 and 1:115. The in-flow in the empty wind tunnel simulating the incoming atmospheric boundary layer was in the transitionally rough regime and used as a reference case. The 1:230 model was tested in the A9 wind tunnel to measure surface pressure. The mapping of the pressure coefficient across the island gave a visualisation and estimation of a detachment region on the top of the escarpment in front of the island. Time resolved instantaneous pressure measurements illustrated the non-steadiness in the detachment region. The 1:115 model was tested using 3C hot-wires(HW) and 2C Particle Image Velocimetry(PIV). Measurements at met masts M3, M6, M7 and M8 and along Line 270°were taken to replicate the result of the Bolund experiment. The flow was characterised by the speed-up ratio, normalised increment of the turbulent kinetic energy, inclination angle and turning angle. Results along line 270°at heights of 2 m and 5 m compared very well with the full-scale results of the Bolund experiment. Vertical profiles at the met masts showed a significant agreement with the full-scale results. The analysis of the Reynolds stresses and the spectral analysis at the met mast locations gave a varied level of agreement at some locations while clear mismatch at others. The horizontal mapping of the flow field, for a 270°wind direction, allowed to characterise the behaviour of the intermittent recirculation bubble on top of the front escarpment followed by a relaxation region and the presence of a shear layer in the lee side of the island. Further detailed velocity measurements were taken at cross-flow planes over the island to study the flow structures on the island. A longitudinal vortex-like structure with high mean velocity gradients and high turbulent kinetic energy was characterised on the escarpment and evolving downstream. This flow structure is a challenge to the numerical models while posing a threat to wind farm designers when siting wind turbines. Spatial distribution of Reynold stresses were presented from 3C HW and PIV measurements. These values are not common results from usual wind tunnel measurements and very useful for modellers using large eddy simulation (LES). An interpretation of the wind tunnel results in terms of usefulness to wind farm designers is given. Evolution and variation of the flow parameters along measurement lines, planes and surfaces indicated how the flow field could affect wind turbine siting. Different flow properties were presented so compare the level of agreement to full-scale results and how this affected when characterising the site wind classes. The results presented suggest, under certain conditions, the robustness of the wind tunnel testing for studying flow topology over complex terrain and its capability to compare to other modelling techniques especially from the level of agreement between the different data sets presented. Additionally, some flow parameters obtained from wind tunnel measurements would have been quite difficult to be measured at full-scale or by computational means considering the state of the art. This work was carried out as a part of the activities supported by the EC as part of the FP7- PEOPLE-ITN-2008 WAUDIT project (Wind Resource Assessment Audit and Standardization) within the FP7 Marie-Curie Initial Training Network and by the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad, within the framework of the ENE2012-36473, TURCO project (Determination of the Spatial Distribution of Statistic Parameters of Flow Turbulence over Complex Topographies in Wind Tunnel) belonging to the Spanish National Program of Research (Subprograma de investigación fundamental no orientada 2012). The report is organised in seven chapters and a collection of annexes. In chapter one, the problem is introduced. In chapter two the experimental setup is described. Following, in chapter three, the inflow conditions of the main wind tunnel used in this piece of research are analysed in detail. In chapter three, preliminary pressure tests results on a model of the island are presented. The main results from the Bolund experiment are replicated in chapter five. In chapter six, an identification of specific flow strutures over the island is presented and, finally, in chapter seven, conclusions and lines for future works related to the presented one are included.

Lidar uncertainty in complex terrain development of a bias correction methodology

El autor ha trabajado como parte del equipo de investigación en mediciones de viento en el Centro Nacional de Energías Renovables (CENER), España, en cooperación con la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid y la Universidad Técnica de Dinamarca. El presente reporte recapitula el trabajo de investigación realizado durante los últimos 4.5 años en el estudio de las fuentes de error de los sistemas de medición remota de viento, basados en la tecnología lidar, enfocado al error causado por los efectos del terreno complejo. Este trabajo corresponde a una tarea del paquete de trabajo dedicado al estudio de sistemas remotos de medición de viento, perteneciente al proyecto de intestigación europeo del 7mo programa marco WAUDIT. Adicionalmente, los datos de viento reales han sido obtenidos durante las campañas de medición en terreno llano y terreno complejo, pertenecientes al también proyecto de intestigación europeo del 7mo programa marco SAFEWIND. El principal objetivo de este trabajo de investigación es determinar los efectos del terreno complejo en el error de medición de la velocidad del viento obtenida con los sistemas de medición remota lidar. Con este conocimiento, es posible proponer una metodología de corrección del error de las mediciones del lidar. Esta metodología está basada en la estimación de las variaciones del campo de viento no uniforme dentro del volumen de medición del lidar. Las variaciones promedio del campo de viento son predichas a partir de los resultados de las simulaciones computacionales de viento RANS, realizadas para el parque experimental de Alaiz. La metodología de corrección es verificada con los resultados de las simulaciones RANS y validadas con las mediciones reales adquiridas en la campaña de medición en terreno complejo. Al inicio de este reporte, el marco teórico describiendo el principio de medición de la tecnología lidar utilizada, es presentado con el fin de familiarizar al lector con los principales conceptos a utilizar a lo largo de este trabajo. Posteriormente, el estado del arte es presentado en donde se describe los avances realizados en el desarrollo de la la tecnología lidar aplicados al sector de la energía eólica. En la parte experimental de este trabajo de investigación se ha estudiado los datos adquiridos durante las dos campañas de medición realizadas. Estas campañas has sido realizadas en terreno llano y complejo, con el fin de complementar los conocimiento adquiridos en casa una de ellas y poder comparar los efectos del terreno en las mediciones de viento realizadas con sistemas remotos lidar. La primer campaña experimental se desarrollo en terreno llano, en el parque de ensayos de aerogeneradores H0vs0re, propiedad de DTU Wind Energy (anteriormente Ris0). La segunda campaña experimental se llevó a cabo en el parque de ensayos de aerogeneradores Alaiz, propiedad de CENER. Exactamente los mismos dos equipos lidar fueron utilizados en estas campañas, haciendo de estos experimentos altamente relevantes en el contexto de evaluación del recurso eólico. Un equipo lidar está basado en tecnología de onda continua, mientras que el otro está basado en tecnología de onda pulsada. La velocidad del viento fue medida, además de con los equipos lidar, con anemómetros de cazoletas, veletas y anemómetros verticales, instalados en mástiles meteorológicos. Los sensores del mástil meteorológico son considerados como las mediciones de referencia en el presente estudio. En primera instancia, se han analizado los promedios diez minútales de las medidas de viento. El objetivo es identificar las principales fuentes de error en las mediciones de los equipos lidar causadas por diferentes condiciones atmosféricas y por el flujo no uniforme de viento causado por el terreno complejo. El error del lidar ha sido estudiado como función de varias propiedades estadísticas del viento, como lo son el ángulo vertical de inclinación, la intensidad de turbulencia, la velocidad vertical, la estabilidad atmosférica y las características del terreno. El propósito es usar este conocimiento con el fin de definir criterios de filtrado de datos. Seguidamente, se propone una metodología para corregir el error del lidar causado por el campo de viento no uniforme, producido por la presencia de terreno complejo. Esta metodología está basada en el análisis matemático inicial sobre el proceso de cálculo de la velocidad de viento por los equipos lidar de onda continua. La metodología de corrección propuesta hace uso de las variaciones de viento calculadas a partir de las simulaciones RANS realizadas para el parque experimental de Alaiz. Una ventaja importante que presenta esta metodología es que las propiedades el campo de viento real, presentes en las mediciones instantáneas del lidar de onda continua, puede dar paso a análisis adicionales como parte del trabajo a futuro. Dentro del marco del proyecto, el trabajo diario se realizó en las instalaciones de CENER, con supervisión cercana de la UPM, incluyendo una estancia de 1.5 meses en la universidad. Durante esta estancia, se definió el análisis matemático de las mediciones de viento realizadas por el equipo lidar de onda continua. Adicionalmente, los efectos del campo de viento no uniforme sobre el error de medición del lidar fueron analíticamente definidos, después de asumir algunas simplificaciones. Adicionalmente, durante la etapa inicial de este proyecto se desarrollo una importante trabajo de cooperación con DTU Wind Energy. Gracias a esto, el autor realizó una estancia de 1.5 meses en Dinamarca. Durante esta estancia, el autor realizó una visita a la campaña de medición en terreno llano con el fin de aprender los aspectos básicos del diseño de campañas de medidas experimentales, el estudio del terreno y los alrededores y familiarizarse con la instrumentación del mástil meteorológico, el sistema de adquisición y almacenamiento de datos, así como de el estudio y reporte del análisis de mediciones. ABSTRACT The present report summarizes the research work performed during last 4.5 years of investigation on the sources of lidar bias due to complex terrain. This work corresponds to one task of the remote sensing work package, belonging to the FP7 WAUDIT project. Furthermore, the field data from the wind velocity measurement campaigns of the FP7 SafeWind project have been used in this report. The main objective of this research work is to determine the terrain effects on the lidar bias in the measured wind velocity. With this knowledge, it is possible to propose a lidar bias correction methodology. This methodology is based on an estimation of the wind field variations within the lidar scan volume. The wind field variations are calculated from RANS simulations performed from the Alaiz test site. The methodology is validated against real scale measurements recorded during an eight month measurement campaign at the Alaiz test site. Firstly, the mathematical framework of the lidar sensing principle is introduced and an overview of the state of the art is presented. The experimental part includes the study of two different, but complementary experiments. The first experiment was a measurement campaign performed in flat terrain, at DTU Wind Energy H0vs0re test site, while the second experiment was performed in complex terrain at CENER Alaiz test site. Exactly the same two lidar devices, based on continuous wave and pulsed wave systems, have been used in the two consecutive measurement campaigns, making this a relevant experiment in the context of wind resource assessment. The wind velocity was sensed by the lidars and standard cup anemometry and wind vanes (installed on a met mast). The met mast sensors are considered as the reference wind velocity measurements. The first analysis of the experimental data is dedicated to identify the main sources of lidar bias present in the 10 minute average values. The purpose is to identify the bias magnitude introduced by different atmospheric conditions and by the non-uniform wind flow resultant of the terrain irregularities. The lidar bias as function of several statistical properties of the wind flow like the tilt angle, turbulence intensity, vertical velocity, atmospheric stability and the terrain characteristics have been studied. The aim of this exercise is to use this knowledge in order to define useful lidar bias data filters. Then, a methodology to correct the lidar bias caused by non-uniform wind flow is proposed, based on the initial mathematical analysis of the lidar measurements. The proposed lidar bias correction methodology has been developed focusing on the the continuous wave lidar system. In a last step, the proposed lidar bias correction methodology is validated with the data of the complex terrain measurement campaign. The methodology makes use of the wind field variations obtained from the RANS analysis. The results are presented and discussed. The advantage of this methodology is that the wind field properties at the Alaiz test site can be studied with more detail, based on the instantaneous measurements of the CW lidar. Within the project framework, the daily basis work has been done at CENER, with close guidance and support from the UPM, including an exchange period of 1.5 months. During this exchange period, the mathematical analysis of the lidar sensing of the wind velocity was defined. Furthermore, the effects of non-uniform wind fields on the lidar bias were analytically defined, after making some assumptions for the sake of simplification. Moreover, there has been an important cooperation with DTU Wind Energy, where a secondment period of 1.5 months has been done as well. During the secondment period at DTU Wind Energy, an important introductory learning has taken place. The learned aspects include the design of an experimental measurement campaign in flat terrain, the site assessment study of obstacles and terrain conditions, the data acquisition and processing, as well as the study and reporting of the measurement analysis.

DNS of a hot-wire anemometer in a turbulent channel flow

A body with a shape similar to a hot wire with its sheath, but no prongs, has been placed close to the wall of a turbulent channel at Re_tau = 600. The results of the channel flow, without the wire, agree with previous published ones, despite the modest resolution and domain size. A simplified, two-dimensional version of the wire at the same Reynolds number has been studied to compare the dynamic response of cold and hot wires, where a slightly bigger perturbation is seen in the hot case, but an almost identical dynamic response. The cold wire seems to be able to measure instantaneous velocity with total drag after proper calibration. Being a DNS, the complete description of the flow field around the wire is obtained.