Performance of constructed evaporation ponds for disposal of smelter waster water: a case study at Portland Aluminum, Victoria, Australia

The construction of evaporative ponds and wetlands for the disposal of waste water high in ionic concentrations is a waste disposal strategy currently considered by many industries. However, the design, construction and management of these ponds and wetlands are not straightforward as complex chemical interactions result in both spatial and temporal changes in water quality. The effects of evaporation and drainage on the water quality in two constructed ponds, an adjacent man-made wetland and local groundwater at Portland Aluminium were investigated. The minimum volume of water entering the ponds during the study period was 0.96±0.16 ML per month. The predicted theoretical evaporative capacity of the two ponds was calculated to be 0.30±0.07 ML per month. More water enters the ponds than it is theoretically possible to evaporate under the ambient weather conditions at Portland, yet the ponds do not overflow, suggesting percolation through the pond lining. No spatial differences in solute concentrations (fluoride, sulphate, bicarbonate, carbonate, sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium ions) were found within the waters of either pond, although temporal differences were apparent. The results support the conclusion that the ponds are not impermeable, and that much of the waste water entering the ponds is being lost through seepage. The impacts on local groundwater chemistry of this seepage are addressed. Significant correlations exist between solute presence within and between the ponds, wetland and groundwater. Fluoride and sulphate concentrations were significantly higher in pond waters throughout the duration of the experiment. Pond sediments revealed a high degree of spatial and temporal heterogeneity in the concentration of all monitored ions resulting from the chemical heterogeneity of the material making up the pond linings. Adsorption isotherms for fluoride indicate that the adsorption capacity of the pond linings remains high for this ion. Implications for the management of waste water by this strategy are discussed.

The effect of water deprivation on signalling molecules that utilise cGMP in the Spinifex Hopping Mouse Notomys alexis

In mammals the natriuretic and guanylin peptides influence renal and intestinal fluid content and electrolyte transport by binding to and activating guanylyl cyclase (GC) receptors that in turn stimulate production of the intracellular second messenger guanosine 3':5'-cyclic monophospate
(cGMP). However, the role of natriuretic and guanylin peptides in desert mammals is not understood. The spinifex hopping-mouse (Notomys alexis), has a suite of behavioural and physiological mechanisms that permits survival for extended periods without access to free water. Because signalling molecules that generate cGMP are known to promote water excretion, it was predicted that natriuretic and guanylin peptide synthesis would be down regulated in water-deprived N. alexis, and thus reduce the amount of water lost in the urine and faeces. However, in the kidney ANP and GC-A mRNA levels were increased in water-deprived mice, but CNP and GC-B mRNA levels were decreased. Water deprivation increased guanylin and uroguanylin mRNA expression in the distal colon, but it remained unchanged in the kidney and proximal colon. The expression of GC-C mRNA increased in the proximal colon but not in the distal colon. This study shows that water deprivation differentially affects the expression of regulatory molecules that stimulate cGMP producti

Environment, resource sustainability and sustainable behaviour: exploring perceptions of students in South West Victoria

The movement toward a sustainable future has begun in many parts of the world, as the seriousness of the environmental problems faced by the planet become more widely recognised. Waste reduction, improved efficiency of energy use, water saving devices and changes in modes of transport are the first steps in the transition to a sustainable future. The students of today will be the decision makers of tomorrow and, thus, can have a significant effect on future development and the environmental
impacts of that development. If students today are to become active participants in the environmental decision-making process, education for sustainability becomes a key component in ensuring sustainable futures. There is a need to establish data describing students’ attitudes toward environmental and resource sustainability issues so that challenges to implementing sustainable development policy can be better recognised. The aims of this study were to identify the perceptions of students in
the south west region of Victoria regarding environment and resource sustainability, and to identify their level of participation in sustainable behaviours. A survey of students has found that global environmental issues perceived by students as being in urgent need of attention were access to freshwater, loss of tropical rainforest and exhaustion of natural resources. At the local level the most urgent issues identified were water pollution, salinization and soil degradation, and clearing of native vegetation. Students perceive that Australians are overusing natural resources. They indicated particular concern for the sustainability of fossil fuels, water, coastal environments and fisheries resources. The results of this study indicate that students are responding to concerns for the environment and resource sustainability by embracing some forms of sustainable behaviour. However, as educators we need to ensure that
the link is made between environment and resource sustainability and the implementation of policies that will further encourage sustainable behaviour.

The global mio-pliocene climatic equability and coastal ostracod faunas of southeast Australia

This study on the Mio–Pliocene ostracod successions of southeast Australia outlines several faunal events indicative of climate warming and/or increased rainfall events. Ostracod faunas associated with a late Late Miocene sea level rise event suggest that the climate of this time in southeast Australia was similar to, or slightly warmer than that of present day southeast Australia. However, it was probably wetter and significantly warmer than immediately preceding (mid Late Miocene) palaeoclimatic conditions within the region. Evidence for a change to wetter and warmer conditions during the late Late Miocene is seen in the appearance of various extant euryhaline and semi-thermophilic ostracod species in coastal ostracod faunas. The appearance of euryhaline species, which are mostly absent from older shallow marine Cenozoic strata of the Bass Strait hinterland, suggests a major influx of fresh water into coastal marine settings, which contributed to the initial phase of development of the southeast Australian late Neogene barrier coastline and associated marginal marine palaeoenvironments.

During the time interval latest Miocene to earliest Pliocene, and during the early Late Pliocene, two subsequent global sea level rise events are also preserved in the southeast Australian coastal plain. Many of the species present in ostracod faunas associated with these two events are the same as in older local late Late Miocene faunas. In earliest (?) Pliocene faunas, there is minor evidence for the reappearance of semi-thermophilic ostracods. Faunas of early Late Pliocene age often exhibit a conspicuous faunal dominance by, or large abundance of euryhaline species, indicating the particularly strong influence of fresh water influxes into coastal marine palaeoenvironments. This may reflect the presence of especially wet local temperate palaeoclimatic conditions during a time of equable global climates.

Succeeding estuarine, lagoonal and coastal embayment ostracod faunas of late Late Pliocene age are associated with marginal marine sediments that are interbedded with coastal dune aeolianites. This suggests an overall seaward retreat of marginal marine environments that was initiated by a major global sea level fall linked to the onset of cooler Late Pliocene and Quaternary global climates.

Trace metal concentrations in edible tissue of snapper, flathead, lobster, and abalone from coastal waters of Victoria, Australia

The concentrations of heavy metals in the edible tissue of commonly fished species of the Victorian coast of Australia are reported. The metals studied were As, Cd, Cu, Hg, Pb, Se, and Zn and the fish species examined were snapper (Pagruss auratus), flathead (Platycephalus bassenssis and Neoplatycephalus richardsoni), lobster (Jasus edwardsii), and abalone (Haliotis rubra). None of the fish species studied had average concentrations exceeding the maximum levels specified for As, Cd, Hg, and Pb by the Food Standards Australia and New Zealand Food Standards code. Additionally, the concentrations of Cu, Se, and Zn were close to or below the median values generally expected in these species. Essential trace elements Se and Zn were found to be well regulated by all fish species. Although also essential, Cu was not so well regulated, especially in abalone. Nonessential metals As, Cd, and Hg are not regulated in the studied fish and their concentrations in the fish tissue are dependent on size and fishing zone. Metal concentrations were not largely affected by sex. Surprisingly, the concentrations of metals in fish in Port Phillip Bay, a zone, which includes the major cities of Melbourne and Geelong and is known to have high concentrations of metals in the water and sediment, were not consistently higher than those in other less-populated fishing zones.

Nutrient contribution to hyper-eutrophic wetlands in Perth, Western Australia

This thesis investigates nutrient contribution to six hyper-eutrophic lakes located within close proximity of each other on the Swan Coastal Plain and 20 kilometres south of the Perth Central Business District, Western Australia. The lakes are located within a mixed land use setting and are under the management of a number of state and local government departments and organisations. These are a number of other lakes on the Swan Coastal Plain for which the majority are less than 3 metres in depth and considered as an expression of the groundwater as their base is below the regional groundwater table throughout most of the year. The limited amount of water quality data available for these six lakes and the surface water and groundwater flowing into them has restricted a thorough understanding of the processes influencing the water quality of the lakes. Various private and public companies and organisations have undertaken studies on some of the individual wetlands and there is a wide difference in scientific opinion as to the major source of the nutrients to those wetlands. These previous studies failed to consider regional surface water and groundwater effects on the nutrient fluxes and they predominantly only investigated single wetland systems. This study attempts for the first time to investigate the regional contribution of nutrients to this system of wetlands existing on the Swan Coastal plain. As such, it also includes new research on the nutrient contribution to some of the remaining wetlands. The research findings indicate that the lake sediments represent a considerable store of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus). These sediments in turn control the nutrient status of the lake's water column. Surface water is found to contribute on an event-basis load of nutrients to the lakes whilst the groundwater surprisingly appears to contribute a comparatively low input of nutrients but governs the water depth. Analysis of the regional groundwater shows efficient denitrifying abilities as a result of denitrifying bacteria and the transport is localised. Management recommendations for the remediation of the social and environmental value of the lakes include treatment of the lake’s sediments via chemical bonding or atmospheric oxidation; utilising the regional groundwater’s denitrifying abilities to ‘treat’ the surface water via infiltration basins; and investigating the merits of managed or artificial aquifer recharge (MAR).

Ecology of epifaunal caridean shrimps in the Hopkins River estuary, and the role of estuaries in the life history of the atyid "Paratya Australiensis" Kemp, 1917 in south-eastern Australia

This study examined the factors affecting the distribution and abundance of epifaunal caridean shrimps in seagrass meadows of the Hopkins River estuary in south-western Victoria, Australia, and investigated the life history patterns of the freshwater Parana australiensis, found for the first time in estuaries. Adult and sub-adult shrimps were surveyed in seagrass meadows along the estuary over two years, and their planktonic larvae were surveyed in adjacent waters. Three species were collected. The marine Palaemon serenus occurred only near the mouth, summer to autumn, in high salinities. The marine/estuarine Macrobrachium intermedium occurred throughout the estuary. Adults were most abundant in late autumn, and least abundant in summer (unlike trends reported in marine meadows). Densities were higher and less variable in downstream meadows. P. australiensis occurred in the upper estuary all year, most abundantly in spring, due to migration from the river after peak discharge. Ovigerous females dominated, while males, showing less migration into the estuary, dominated above estuarine influence. Adults disappeared from the estuary in summer as salinity rose. Breeding period for P. australiensis was briefer in the estuary (September-December) than upstream (July-April). M. intermedium began breeding later in the upper estuary (November/December-March) than in the lower estuary (October-March), probably reflecting a physiological response to lower salinity, rather than an interaction with P. australiensis. No ovigerous P. serenus were found in the estuary. Larvae of P. australiensis and M intermedium occurred abundantly throughout the estuary, but P. serenus larvae did not. P. australiensis was an early coloniser to the plankton after peak discharge (November-December). Larvae concentrated in the deep saline layer at the head of the intruding salt wedge, thus probably maintaining longitudinal position. Diurnal vertical migrations were evident within the salt wedge, and in a deep pool above tidal influence. M. intermedium larvae occurred October-May in the lower estuary and November-April in the upper estuary, peaking in abundance one to two months after P. australiensis. They were associated with low surface flows and surface salinities greater than 10, over an anoxic deeper layer. All three species exhibited extended development of euryhaline larvae in the laboratory. Tolerances and optimal salinities of larvae of the three species reflected their distributions. M. intermedium was the most euryhaline species. P. australiensis larvae were tolerant of higher salinities than juveniles of adults: capable of developing in salinity of at least 15. Most P. australiensis juveniles recruited to the estuary November-December, after which numbers declined dramatically. After settlement, most recruits probably migrated upstream out of the estuary. Two cohorts of M. intermedium recruited to the estuary from larvae in summer (December and February), but some juveniles also migrated from adjacent coastal waters. Post-larval migration was at least as important a determinant of abundance as direct recruitment from estuarine, planktonic larvae in all three species. Distributions among seagrass meadows along the estuary were determined primarily by physico-chemical patterns driven by hydrological changes. Seasonal variations in salinity and temperature were strongly associated with seasonal variations in shrimp abundance. Salinity tolerances of adults of the three species reflected their distribution patterns. Biotic interactions were more important in determining distributions within meadows. P. australiensis, when abundant, were associated with seagrass biomass. M. intermedium were also, but when seagrass was sparsest and least extensive. The two species apparently partitioned the seagrass meadow according to depth in early summer. Laboratory experiments suggested P. australiensis was displaced from deeper water by M. intermedium. Preference for vegetative complexity and competition for position within meadows suggest the underlying importance of predation in regulating shrimp populations. A survey of south-eastern Australian estuaries found P. australiensis larvae abundant in all stable, open, well-developed, salt-wedge estuaries where adults were abundant. Adults were most abundant in low salinities among submerged leafy macrophytes. Reproductive traits of P. australiensis were compared in estuarine and fresh reaches of three rivers. Early in the breeding season, egg size was smaller, and (size-specific) egg number larger in estuaries than upstream. A trade-off between egg size and egg number resulted in no difference in total (size-specific) reproductive investment between locations. Reproductive investment tended to decrease at some locations over the breeding season, and this decrease was a result of decreased egg size in most cases. The decrease in reproductive investment probably reflected reduced food availability for the adult, while the reduced egg size was probably a response to improved conditions for larval development. In the Hopkins River, larger egg size at upstream sites was reflected in larger early stage larvae. Later stage larvae were larger in the estuary, suggesting more favourable conditions for larval development. Allozyme electrophoresis showed the P. australiensis populations in each of the three rivers to be distinct. Allozyme frequencies were not different within the Hopkins River, but upstream and estuarine locations in the Curdies and Gellibrand were different. Although some variation in reproductive traits within catchments may have been due to genotypic differences, trade-offs between egg size and number, and decreases in egg size over summer were probably due to plastic responses to environmental cues. It is proposed P. australiensis inhabits and reproduces in both estuarine and freshwater environments by plastic response to environmental conditions. Recruitment to estuaries is dependent on the presence of suitable adult, littoral habitat, and a stable salt wedge for larval retention. Estuaries are important recruitment sites for P. australiensis, potentially allowing an extra brood each year before riverine recruitment. Estuarine broods could constitute a large part of the total fecundity of P. australiensis females. Euryhaline larvae and estuarine recruitment of P. australiensis suggest marine transport of larvae between estuaries as a possible dispersal mechanism for Paratya species.

Role of water and surfactant in the solvent milling of wool

Unlike other fibres, wool felts readily when agitated in the presence of water. For this reason, only the minimum necessary quantity of water is used when the garments are drycleaned. However, wool fibres are often deliberately felted to obtain a warm bulky handle by controlled addition of water to the solvent. This process is known as solvent milling and recently, it has become a popular alternative to the traditional milling in water alone. Although the factors which influence milling in solvent are known, the relationships between them are not well defined. A comprehensive study of the relationship between water distribution and milling shrinkage during agitation of wool in perchloroethylene has been carried out in this thesis. The Karl Fischer method of determination was used throughout to establish the distribution of water between the wool fibre and the solvent liquor. The emphasis was placed on practical production variables. The role of surfactant in affecting milling shrinkage through its effect on the transport of water to the fibre from the solvent was examined. The ability of a suitable surfactant in promoting even and rapid sorption of water by the fibre was related to the colloidal properties of the milling liquor.

Irrigation with reclaimed water at Portland Aluminium

Through extensive laboratory and field based analysis of soil chemical and physical processes, this research identified and addressed key management issues associated with the sustainable irrigation of municipal wastewater onto sandy water repellent soils, overlaying a shallow aquifer, in an environmentally significant coastal system.

Reductions in nutrient discharge from aquaculture through recycling of water utilising floating media and activated carbon filtration

Nutrient discharge into coastal areas, such as the Great Barrier Reef can result in the degradation of coastal ecosystems. For example, excess nitrogen and phosphorus can damage corals through inducing algal bloom and subsequent shading. Excessive phosphorus can further weaken coral skeletons making them susceptible to damage. Land based industries such as aquaculture can contribute to such problems. This study set out to develop a system whereby water from aquaculture can be constantly reused resulting in minimized waste discharge. A three-stage filtration system utilizing floating media and activated carbon was designed to harness bacterial processes that could reduce both particulate and dissolved compounds to the extent whereby approximately 100% reuse of the wastewater became possible. This involved efficient and effective particulate and biological removal mechanisms in both aerobic and anaerobic zones of the filtration system. This design reduced dissolved nitrogen levels by up to 70% and maintained low phosphorus levels, which allowed the reuse of water for the successful culture of barramundi with a survival rate of 97% over 25 days. This pilot scale study demonstrated the potential of reusing aquaculture wastewater from the viewpoint of reducing nutrient input into coastal environments. Future research will refine these processes and assess the performance of the system at several commercial scale applications.

Sustainable aquaculture through water recycling

The discharge of nutrient rich effluent from aquaculture systems into coastal waters is cause for concern. Direct filtration of aquaculture wastewater, using floating medium and sand with in line flocculation, and biological filtration using activated carbon, has the potential to improve water quality for recycling within aquaculture systems. This study looked at the performance of laboratory scale dual media and activated carbon filters in suspended solids and nutrient removal in the treatment of aquaculture wastewater. The dual media filter, with flocculant FeCl3 of 9mg/L, functioned best at a velocity of 7mJh with low headloss, and good turbidity and phosphorus removal (80% and 53% respectively). The activated carbon filter removed ammonia (84%) and nitrite (71 %) in the process of nitrification with a five-hour hydraulic retention time. This paper reports preliminary results from a longer term sustainable aquaculture project.

Sydney 1998 - lessons from a drinking water crisis

From July to September 1998, high concentrations of Cryptosporidium and Giardia were detected episodically in the water supply and distribution systems of Sydney, Australia. The resulting drinking water crisis triggered three consecutive boil-water advisories and a government inquiry into the management of the water supply. The episodic nature of the detections focused attention on the veracity of the laboratory results and triggered an investigation of the transport of these pathogens in Sydney's water supply system. This article provides information submitted to the Sydney Water Inquiry that explains the episodic occurrence of pathogens in the reticulated water supply, attributing it to rapid fluctuations in the quality of the water reaching the water treatment plant

Pliocene coastal palaeomorphology and ostracod faunas of the Bass Strait hinterland, southeast Australia

Early to late Pliocene sedimentary strata present across the northern Bass Strait hinterland, southeastern Australia yield extensive fossil proxy data relevant to the interpretation of high sea level coastal palaeomorphology. Within the Pliocene Whalers Bluff Formation exposed in coastal cliffs near the township of Portland, Victoria, marine microfossil faunas delineate two broad cycles of deposition. Both these sedimentary cycles are bound below by unconformity surfaces. Within the lower sedimentary cycle, a basal stress-tolerant (low diversity) marginal marine microfossil fauna devoid of ostracods and suggestive of bottom-water hypoxia, is succeeded by a diverse shallow marine ostracod fauna dominated by stenohaline species indicative of a sheltered (but open) oceanic embayment. This lower sedimentary cycle has an early Pliocene (Zanclean) age. Equivalent shallow marine (e.g. coastal embayment) deposits occur broadly across the coastal hinterland of southeastern Australia-reflecting the generally higher global sea levels of this time. The upper cycle in the cliff exposures at Portland is late Pliocene (Piacenzian) in age. Equivalent deposits across the Bass Strait hinterland are restricted to former incised river valley settings. Euryhaline estuarine/coastal lagoon Ostracoda are present throughout the upper cycle in the Portland cliffs. These are associated with a low diversity microfauna at the base of the upper cycle and a high diversity microfauna towards the top of the cycle. Early Pliocene coastal marine deposits can be distinguished from late Pliocene coastal marine deposits across the northern Bass Strait hinterland on the basis of the presence or absence of certain open marine ('stenohaline') ostracod species.

Coastal responses to estuarine discharge from intermittently open systems

This thesis is the first study to examine the interaction between estuarine discharge and coastal environments, for intermittent estuaries in Victoria. The study examined water quality, bacteria and seaweed communities and the diet of mussels, concluding that estuarine discharge is an important driver for the productivity of nearshore marine environments.