Optimization of redundancy in branched water distribution systems

In developing countries many water distribution systems are branched networks with little redundancy. If any component in the distribution system fails, many users are left relying on secondary water sources. These sources oftentimes do not provide potable water and prolonged use leads to increased cases of water borne illnesses. Increasing redundancy in branched networks increases the reliability of the networks, but is oftentimes viewed as unaffordable. This paper presents a procedure for water system managers to use to determine which loops when added to a branch network provide the most benefit for users. Two methods are presented, one ranking the loops based on total number of users benefited, and one ranking the loops of number of vulnerable users benefited. A case study is presented using the water distribution system of Medina Bank Village, Belize. It was found that forming loops in upstream pipes connected to the main line had the potential to benefit the most users.

Reliability of intraoperative high-resolution 2D ultrasound as an alternative to high-field strength MR imaging for tumor resection control: a prospective comparative study

OBJECT: Ultrasound may be a reliable but simpler alternative to intraoperative MR imaging (iMR imaging) for tumor resection control. However, its reliability in the detection of tumor remnants has not been definitely proven. The aim of the study was to compare high-field iMR imaging (1.5 T) and high-resolution 2D ultrasound in terms of tumor resection control. METHODS: A prospective comparative study of 26 consecutive patients was performed. The following parameters were compared: the existence of tumor remnants after presumed radical removal and the quality of the images. Tumor remnants were categorized as: detectable with both imaging modalities or visible only with 1 modality. RESULTS: Tumor remnants were detected in 21 cases (80.8%) with iMR imaging. All large remnants were demonstrated with both modalities, and their image quality was good. Two-dimensional ultrasound was not as effective in detecting remnants<1 cm. Two remnants detected with iMR imaging were missed by ultrasound. In 2 cases suspicious signals visible only on ultrasound images were misinterpreted as remnants but turned out to be a blood clot and peritumoral parenchyma. The average time for acquisition of an ultrasound image was 2 minutes, whereas that for an iMR image was approximately 10 minutes. Neither modality resulted in any procedure-related complications or morbidity. CONCLUSIONS: Intraoperative MR imaging is more precise in detecting small tumor remnants than 2D ultrasound. Nevertheless, the latter may be used as a less expensive and less time-consuming alternative that provides almost real-time feedback information. Its accuracy is highest in case of more confined, deeply located remnants. In cases of more superficially located remnants, its role is more limited.

Screening of Indian Plants for Biological Activity : Part V

Two hundred and eighty nine botanically identified plant materials have been tested as 50% ethanol extracts, for a wide variety of bloloalcal activities including including anticancer, chemotherapeutic and pharmaceutical activities. Biological activities been confirmed in fractions of 47 of these extracts.

Multichannel EEG fields during and without visual input: frequency domain model source locations and dimensional complexities

27-Channel EEG potential map series were recorded from 12 normals with closed and open eyes. Intracerebral dipole model source locations in the frequency domain were computed. Eye opening (visual input) caused centralization (convergence and elevation) of the source locations of the seven frequency bands, indicative of generalized activity; especially, there was clear anteriorization of α-2 (10.5–12 Hz) and β-2 (18.5–21 Hz) sources (α-2 also to the left). Complexity of the map series' trajectories in state space (assessed by Global Dimensional Complexity and Global OMEGA Complexity) increased significantly with eye opening, indicative of more independent, parallel, active processes. Contrary to PET and fMRI, these results suggest that brain activity is more distributed and independent during visual input than after eye closing (when it is more localized and more posterior).

Antibacterial activity of moxifloxacin on bacteria associated with periodontitis within a biofilm

The activity of moxifloxacin was compared with ofloxacin and doxycycline against bacteria associated with periodontitis within a biofilm (single strain and mixed population) in vitro. Minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and minimal bactericidal concentrations (MBCs) of moxifloxacin, ofloxacin and doxycyline were determined against single strains and mixed populations in a planktonic state. Single-species biofilms of two Porphyromonas gingivalis and two Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans strains and a multi-species biofilm consisting of 12 species were formed for 3 days. The minimal biofilm eradication concentrations (MBECs) were determined after exposing the biofilms to the antibacterials (0.002 - 512 µg ml-1) for 18 h, addition of nutrient broth for 3 days and subsequent subcultivation. Photographs were taken by using confocal laser scanning microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. The MICs and MBCs did not differ between ofloxacin and moxifloxacin against A. actinomycetemcomitans, moxifloxacin was more active than the other tested antibacterials against anaerobes and the mixed population. The single-species biofilms were eradicated by moderate concentrations of the antibacterials, the lowest MBECs were always found for moxifloxacin (2-8 µg ml-1). MBECs against the multi-species biofilms were 128 µg ml-1, >512 µg ml-1 and >512 µg ml-1 for moxifloxacin, ofloxacin and doxycycline, respectively. In summary, moxifloxacin in a topical formulation may have potential as an adjunct to mechanical removal of the biofilms.

Nuclear and plastid markers reveal the persistence of genetic identity: A new perspective on the evolutionary history of Petunia exserta

Recently divergent species that can hybridize are ideal models for investigating the genetic exchanges that can occur while preserving the species boundaries. Petunia exserta is an endemic species from a very limited and specific area that grows exclusively in rocky shelters. These shaded spots are an inhospitable habitat for all other Petunia species, including the closely related and widely distributed species P. axillaris. Individuals with intermediate morphologic characteristics have been found near the rocky shelters and were believed to be putative hybrids between P. exserta and P. axillaris, suggesting a situation where Petunia exserta is losing its genetic identity. In the current study, we analyzed the plastid intergenic spacers trnS/trnG and trnH/psbA and six nuclear CAPS markers in a large sampling design of both species to understand the evolutionary process occurring in this biological system. Bayesian clustering methods, cpDNA haplotype networks, genetic diversity statistics, and coalescence-based analyses support a scenario where hybridization occurs while two genetic clusters corresponding to two species are maintained. Our results reinforce the importance of coupling differentially inherited markers with an extensive geographic sample to assess the evolutionary dynamics of recently diverged species that can hybridize. (C) 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Lipid synthesis in protozoan parasites: a comparison between kinetoplastids and apicomplexans.

Lipid metabolism is of crucial importance for pathogens. Lipids serve as cellular building blocks, signalling molecules, energy stores, posttranslational modifiers, and pathogenesis factors. Parasites rely on a complex system of uptake and synthesis mechanisms to satisfy their lipid needs. The parameters of this system change dramatically as the parasite transits through the various stages of its life cycle. Here we discuss the tremendous recent advances that have been made in the understanding of the synthesis and uptake pathways for fatty acids and phospholipids in apicomplexan and kinetoplastid parasites, including Plasmodium, Toxoplasma, Cryptosporidium, Trypanosoma and Leishmania. Lipid synthesis differs in significant ways between parasites from both phyla and the human host. Parasites have acquired novel pathways through endosymbiosis, as in the case of the apicoplast, have dramatically reshaped substrate and product profiles, and have evolved specialized lipids to interact with or manipulate the host. These differences potentially provide opportunities for drug development. We outline the lipid pathways for key species in detail as they progress through the developmental cycle and highlight those that are of particular importance to the biology of the pathogens and/or are the most promising targets for parasite-specific treatment.

Does work stress make you shorter? An ambulatory field study of daily work stressors, job control, and spinal shrinkage

Body height decreases throughout the day due to fluid loss from the intervertebral disk. This study investigated whether spinal shrinkage was greater during workdays compared with nonwork days, whether daily work stressors were positively related to spinal shrinkage, and whether job control was negatively related to spinal shrinkage. In a consecutive 2-week ambulatory field study, including 39 office employees and 512 days of observation, spinal shrinkage was measured by a stadiometer, and calculated as body height in the morning minus body height in the evening. Physical activity was monitored throughout the 14 days by accelerometry. Daily work stressors, daily job control, biomechanical workload, and recreational activities after work were measured with daily surveys. Multilevel regression analyses showed that spinal disks shrank more during workdays than during nonwork days. After adjustment for sex, age, body weight, smoking status, biomechanical work strain, and time spent on physical and low-effort activities during the day, lower levels of daily job control significantly predicted increased spinal shrinkage. Findings add to knowledge on how work redesign that increases job control may possibly contribute to preserving intervertebral disk function and preventing occupational back pain.

Higher CNS Penetration-Effectiveness of Long-term Combination Antiretroviral Therapy Is Associated With Better HIV-1 Viral Suppression in Cerebrospinal Fluid

Objectives: To determine HIV-1 RNA in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of successfully treated patients and to evaluate if combination antiretroviral treatments with higher central nervous system penetration-effectiveness (CPE) achieve better CSF viral suppression. Methods: Viral loads (VLs) and drug concentrations of lopinavir, atazanavir, and efavirenz were measured in plasma and CSF. The CPE was calculated using 2 different methods. Results: The authors analyzed 87 CSF samples of 60 patients. In 4 CSF samples, HIV-1 RNA was detectable with 43–82 copies per milliliter. Median CPE in patients with detectable CSF VL was significantly lower compared with individuals with undetectable VL: CPE of 1.0 (range, 1.0–1.5) versus 2.3 (range, 1.0–3.5) using the method of 2008 (P = 0.011) and CPE of 6 (range, 6–8) versus 8 (range, 5–12) using the method of 2010 (P = 0.022). The extrapolated CSF trough levels for atazanavir (n = 12) were clearly above the 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) in only 25% of samples; both patients on atazanavir/ritonavir with detectable CSF HIV-1 RNA had trough levels in the range of the presumed IC50. The extrapolated CSF trough level for lopinavir (n = 42) and efavirenz (n = 18) were above the IC50 in 98% and 78%, respectively, of samples, including the patients with detectable CSF HIV-1 RNA. Conclusions: This study suggests that treatment regimens with high intracerebral efficacy reflected by a high CPE score are essential to achieve CSF HIV-1 RNA suppression. The CPE score including all drug components was a better predictor for treatment failure in the CSF than the sole concentrations of protease inhibitor or nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor in plasma or CSF.

Possible earthquake trigger for 6th century mass wasting deposit at Lake Ohrid (Macedonia/Albania)

Abstract. Lake Ohrid shared by the Republics of Albania and Macedonia is formed by a tectonically active graben within the south Balkans and suggested to be the oldest lake in Europe. Several studies have shown that the lake provides a valuable record of climatic and environmental changes and a distal tephrostratigraphic record of volcanic eruptions from Italy. Fault structures identified in seismic data demonstrate that sediments have also the potential to record tectonic activity in the region. Here, we provide an example of linking seismic and sedimentological information with tectonic activity and historical documents. Historical documents indicate that a major earthquake destroyed the city of Lychnidus (today: city of Ohrid) in the early 6th century AD. Multichannel seismic profiles, parametric sediment echosounder profiles, and a 10.08m long sediment record from the western part of the lake indicate a 2m thick mass wasting deposit, which is tentatively correlated with this earthquake. The mass wasting deposit is chronologically well constrained, as it directly overlays the AD472/AD 512 tephra. Moreover, radiocarbon dates and cross correlation with other sediment sequences with similar geochemical characteristics of the Holocene indicate that the mass wasting event took place prior to the onset of the Medieval Warm Period, and is attributed it to one of the known earthquakes in the region in the early 6th century AD.

A tephrostratigraphic record for the last glacial-interglacial cycle from Lake Ohrid, Albania and Macedonia

ABSTRACT: Here we present a tephrostratigraphic record (core Co1202) recovered from the northeastern part of Lake Ohrid (Republics of Macedonia and Albania) reaching back to Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 6. Overall ten horizons (OT0702-1 to OT0702-10) containing volcanic tephra have been recognised throughout the 14.94m long sediment succession. Four tephra layers were visible at macroscopic inspection (OT0702-4, OT0702-6, OT0702-8 and OT0702-9), while the remaining six are cryptotephras (OT0702-1, OT0702-2, OT0702-3, OT0702-5, OT0702-7 and OT0702-10) identified from peaks in K, Zr and Sr intensities, magnetic susceptibility measurements, and washing and sieving of the sediments. Glass shards of tephra layers and cryptotephras were analysed with respect to their major element composition, and correlated to explosive eruptions of Italian volcanoes. The stratigraphy and the major element composition of tephra layers and cryptotephras allowed the correlation of OT0702-1 to AD 472 or AD 512 eruptions of Somma-Vesuvius, OT0702-2 to the FL eruption of Mount Etna, OT0702-3 to the Mercato from Somma-Vesuvius, OT0702-4 to SMP1-e/Y-3 eruption from the Campi Flegrei caldera, OT0702-5 to the Codola eruption (Somma-Vesuvius or Campi Flegrei), OT0702-6 to the Campanian Ignimbrite/Y-5 from the Campi Flegrei caldera, OT0702- 7 to the Green Tuff/Y-6 eruption from Pantelleria Island, OT0702-8 to the X-5 eruption probably originating from the Campi Flegrei caldera, OT0702-9 to the X-6 eruption of generic Campanian origin, and OT0702-10 to the P-11 eruption from Pantelleria Island. The fairly well-known ages of these tephra layers and parent eruptions provide new data on the dispersal and deposition of these tephras and, furthermore, allow the establishment of a chronological framework for core Co1202 for a first interpretation of major sedimentological changes.

Sex identification and PIT-tagging: tools and prospects for studying intersexual differences in freshwater fishes

This study evaluated a technique to allow the long-term monitoring of individual fishes of known sex in the wild using sex confirmation in close proximity to the reproductive period combined with individual tagging. Hundreds of partially migratory roach Rutilus rutilus were tagged with passive integrated transponders (PIT) following sex determination in spring and various performance measures were compared with fish tagged outside the reproductive period in autumn. Short-term survival was > 95% for R. rutilus sexed and tagged under natural field conditions. Total length (LT) did not affect the probability of survival within the size range tagged (119–280mm), nor were there differences in timing of migration the following season between individuals sexed and tagged in spring and individuals tagged in autumn (i.e. outside the reproductive period). Also, a similar per cent of R. rutilus sexed and tagged in spring and tagged in autumn migrated the following season (34·5 and 34·7%). Moreover, long-term recapture data revealed no significant differences in body condition between R. rutilus individuals sexed and tagged in spring, individuals tagged in autumn and unmanipulated individuals. The observed sex ratio of recaptured fish did not differ from the expected values of equal recapture rates between males and females. Hence, there is no observable evidence for an adverse effect of tagging close to the reproductive period and therefore this method is suitable for studying intersexual differences and other phenotypic traits temporarily expressed during reproduction at the individual level in fishes.

Adolescent Sexual Behavior: Examining Data from Texas and the US

Background: The US has higher rates of teen births and sexually transmitted infections (STI) than other developed countries. Texas youth are disproportionately impacted. Purpose: To review local, state, and national data on teens’ engagement in sexual risk behaviors to inform policy and practice related to teen sexual health. Methods: 2009 middle school and high school Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) data, and data from All About Youth, a middle school study conducted in a large urban school district in Texas, were analyzed to assess the prevalence of sexual initiation, including the initiation of non-coital sex, and the prevalence of sexual risk behaviors among Texas and US youth. Results: A substantial proportion of middle and high school students are having sex. Sexual initiation begins as early as 6th grade and increases steadily through 12th grade with almost two-thirds of high school seniors being sexually experienced. Many teens are not protecting themselves from unintended pregnancy or STIs – nationally, 80% and 39% of high school students did not use birth control pills or a condom respectively the last time they had sex. Many middle and high school students are engaging in oral and anal sex, two behaviors which increase the risk of contracting an STI and HIV. In Texas, an estimated 689,512 out of 1,327,815 public high school students are sexually experienced – over half (52%) of the total high school population. Texas students surpass their US peers in several sexual risk behaviors including number of lifetime sexual partners, being currently sexually active, and not using effective methods of birth control or dual protection when having sex. They are also less likely to receive HIV/AIDS education in school. Conclusion: Changes in policy and practice, including implementation of evidence-based sex education programs in middle and high schools and increased access to integrated, teen-friendly sexual and reproductive health services, are urgently needed at the state and national levels to address these issues effectively.