Flagellin promotes myeloid differentiation factor 88-dependent development of Th2-type response.

Activation of dendritic cells (DC) by microbial products via Toll-like receptors (TLR) is instrumental in the induction of immunity. In particular, TLR signaling plays a major role in the instruction of Th1 responses. The development of Th2 responses has been proposed to be independent of the adapter molecule myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) involved in signal transduction by TLRs. In this study we show that flagellin, the bacterial stimulus for TLR5, drives MyD88-dependent Th2-type immunity in mice. Flagellin promotes the secretion of IL-4 and IL-13 by Ag-specific CD4(+) T cells as well as IgG1 responses. The Th2-biased responses are associated with the maturation of DCs, which are shown to express TLR5. Flagellin-mediated DC activation requires MyD88 and induces NF-kappaB-dependent transcription and the production of low levels of proinflammatory cytokines. In addition, the flagellin-specific response is characterized by the lack of secretion of the Th1-promoting cytokine IL-12 p70. In conclusion, this study suggests that flagellin and, more generally, TLR ligands can control Th2 responses in a MyD88-dependent manner.

Temporal and spatial appearance of the membrane cytoskeleton and perineuronal nets in the rat neocortex.

Parvalbumin-immunoreactive interneurons are surrounded by perineuronal nets, containing molecules of the extracellular matrix (e.g. tenascin-R). Furthermore, they seem to have a special cytoskeleton composed of, among others, ankyrinR and beta Rspectrin. In the present developmental study we showed that the intracellular markers parvalbumin, ankyrinR and beta Rspectrin as well as Vicia Villosa agglutinin, an extracellular marker for perineuronal nets, appeared in the second postnatal week. In the third postnatal week, ankyrinR and beta R spectrin were present in the parvalbumin-positive interneurons. Tenascin-R appeared in a similar topographic distribution as the intracellular markers. The adult pattern was established upon the end of the fourth postnatal week. Our results indicate that cytoskeletal maturity maybe a prerequisite for the organization of perineuronal nets of extracellular matrix.

Sustaining sleep spindles through enhanced SK2-channel activity consolidates sleep and elevates arousal threshold.

Sleep spindles are synchronized 11-15 Hz electroencephalographic (EEG) oscillations predominant during nonrapid-eye-movement sleep (NREMS). Rhythmic bursting in the reticular thalamic nucleus (nRt), arising from interplay between Ca(v)3.3-type Ca(2+) channels and Ca(2+)-dependent small-conductance-type 2 (SK2) K(+) channels, underlies spindle generation. Correlative evidence indicates that spindles contribute to memory consolidation and protection against environmental noise in human NREMS. Here, we describe a molecular mechanism through which spindle power is selectively extended and we probed the actions of intensified spindling in the naturally sleeping mouse. Using electrophysiological recordings in acute brain slices from SK2 channel-overexpressing (SK2-OE) mice, we found that nRt bursting was potentiated and thalamic circuit oscillations were prolonged. Moreover, nRt cells showed greater resilience to transit from burst to tonic discharge in response to gradual depolarization, mimicking transitions out of NREMS. Compared with wild-type littermates, chronic EEG recordings of SK2-OE mice contained less fragmented NREMS, while the NREMS EEG power spectrum was conserved. Furthermore, EEG spindle activity was prolonged at NREMS exit. Finally, when exposed to white noise, SK2-OE mice needed stronger stimuli to arouse. Increased nRt bursting thus strengthens spindles and improves sleep quality through mechanisms independent of EEG slow waves (<4 Hz), suggesting SK2 signaling as a new potential therapeutic target for sleep disorders and for neuropsychiatric diseases accompanied by weakened sleep spindles.

Alveolar macrophages and lung dendritic cells sense RNA and drive mucosal IgA responses.

The mechanisms regulating systemic and mucosal IgA responses in the respiratory tract are incompletely understood. Using virus-like particles loaded with single-stranded RNA as a ligand for TLR7, we found that systemic vs mucosal IgA responses in mice were differently regulated. Systemic IgA responses following s.c. immunization were T cell independent and did not require TACI or TGFbeta, whereas mucosal IgA production was dependent on Th cells, TACI, and TGFbeta. Strikingly, both responses required TLR7 signaling, but systemic IgA depended upon TLR7 signaling directly to B cells whereas mucosal IgA required TLR7 signaling to lung dendritic cells and alveolar macrophages. Our data show that IgA switching is controlled differently according to the cell type receiving TLR signals. This knowledge should facilitate the development of IgA-inducing vaccines.

Transient stimulation of glucose metabolism by insulin in the 1-day chick embryo.

Effects of insulin upon glucose metabolism were investigated in chick embryos explanted in vitro during the first 30 h of incubation. Insulin stimulated the glucose consumption of the chick gastrula (18 h) and neurula (24 h), but had no effect on the late blastula (0 h:laying) and on the stage of six to eight somites (30 h). The increase in glucose consumption concerned both the embryonic area pellucida (AP) and extraembryonic area opaca (AO). AP responded to a greater extent (50%) and at a lower range of concentrations (0.1-1.0 ng/ml) than AO (30%; 1-100 ng/ml). Insulin had no effect on the oxygen consumption of blastoderms, whereas it stimulated the aerobic lactate production (approximately 70% of the additional glucose consumption was converted to lactate). The nanomolar range of stimulating concentrations suggests that insulin has a specific effect in the chick embryo, and that it could modulate glucose metabolism in ovo as well. The transient sensitivity of the embryo to insulin is discussed in relation to behavior of mesodermal cells.

Effect of carbohydrate overfeeding on whole body macronutrient metabolism and expression of lipogenic enzymes in adipose tissue of lean and overweight humans

OBJECTIVE: Lipids stored in adipose tissue can originate from dietary lipids or from de novo lipogenesis (DNL) from carbohydrates. Whether DNL is abnormal in adipose tissue of overweight individuals remains unknown. The present study was undertaken to assess the effect of carbohydrate overfeeding on glucose-induced whole body DNL and adipose tissue lipogenic gene expression in lean and overweight humans. DESIGN: Prospective, cross-over study. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: A total of 11 lean (five male, six female, mean BMI 21.0+/-0.5 kg/m(2)) and eight overweight (four males, four females, mean BMI 30.1+/-0.6 kg/m(2)) volunteers were studied on two occasions. On one occasion, they received an isoenergetic diet containing 50% carbohydrate for 4 days prior to testing; on the other, they received a hyperenergetic diet (175% energy requirements) containing 71% carbohydrates. After each period of 4 days of controlled diet, they were studied over 6 h after having received 3.25 g glucose/kg fat free mass. Whole body glucose oxidation and net DNL were monitored by means of indirect calorimetry. An adipose tissue biopsy was obtained at the end of this 6-h period and the levels of SREBP-1c, acetyl CoA carboxylase, and fatty acid synthase mRNA were measured by real-time PCR. RESULTS: After isocaloric feeding, whole body net DNL amounted to 35+/-9 mg/kg fat free mass/5 h in lean subjects and to 49+/-3 mg/kg fat free mass/5 h in overweight subjects over the 5 h following glucose ingestion. These figures increased (P<0.001) to 156+/-21 mg/kg fat free mass/5 h in lean and 64+/-11 mg/kg fat free mass/5 h (P<0.05 vs lean) in overweight subjects after carbohydrate overfeeding. Whole body DNL after overfeeding was lower (P<0.001) and glycogen synthesis was higher (P<0.001) in overweight than in normal subjects. Adipose tissue SREBP-1c mRNA increased by 25% in overweight and by 43% in lean subjects (P<0.05) after carbohydrate overfeeding, whereas fatty acid synthase mRNA increased by 66 and 84% (P<0.05). CONCLUSION: Whole body net DNL is not increased during carbohydrate overfeeding in overweight individuals. Stimulation of adipose lipogenic enzymes is also not higher in overweight subjects. Carbohydrate overfeeding does not stimulate whole body net DNL nor expression of lipogenic enzymes in adipose tissue to a larger extent in overweight than lean subjects.

Airway surface liquid volume regulation determines different airway phenotypes in liddle compared with betaENaC-overexpressing mice.

Studies in cystic fibrosis patients and mice overexpressing the epithelial Na(+) channel beta-subunit (betaENaC-Tg) suggest that raised airway Na(+) transport and airway surface liquid (ASL) depletion are central to the pathogenesis of cystic fibrosis lung disease. However, patients or mice with Liddle gain-of-function betaENaC mutations exhibit hypertension but no lung disease. To investigate this apparent paradox, we compared the airway phenotype (nasal versus tracheal) of Liddle with CFTR-null, betaENaC-Tg, and double mutant mice. In mouse nasal epithelium, the region that functionally mimics human airways, high levels of CFTR expression inhibited Liddle epithelial Nat channel (ENaC) hyperfunction. Conversely, in mouse trachea, low levels of CFTR failed to suppress Liddle ENaC hyperfunction. Indeed, Na(+) transport measured in Ussing chambers ("flooded" conditions) was raised in both Liddle and betaENaC-Tg mice. Because enhanced Na(+) transport did not correlate with lung disease in these mutant mice, measurements in tracheal cultures under physiologic "thin film" conditions and in vivo were performed. Regulation of ASL volume and ENaC-mediated Na(+) absorption were intact in Liddle but defective in betaENaC-Tg mice. We conclude that the capacity to regulate Na(+) transport and ASL volume, not absolute Na(+) transport rates in Ussing chambers, is the key physiologic function protecting airways from dehydration-induced lung disease.

PD-1 is a regulator of NY-ESO-1-specific CD8+ T cell expansion in melanoma patients.

The programmed death 1 (PD-1) receptor is a negative regulator of activated T cells and is up-regulated on exhausted virus-specific CD8(+) T cells in chronically infected mice and humans. Programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) is expressed by multiple tumors, and its interaction with PD-1 resulted in tumor escape in experimental models. To investigate the role of PD-1 in impairing spontaneous tumor Ag-specific CD8(+) T cells in melanoma patients, we have examined the effect of PD-1 expression on ex vivo detectable CD8(+) T cells specific to the tumor Ag NY-ESO-1. In contrast to EBV, influenza, or Melan-A/MART-1-specific CD8(+) T cells, NY-ESO-1-specific CD8(+) T cells up-regulated PD-1 expression. PD-1 up-regulation on spontaneous NY-ESO-1-specific CD8(+) T cells occurs along with T cell activation and is not directly associated with an inability to produce cytokines. Importantly, blockade of the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway in combination with prolonged Ag stimulation with PD-L1(+) APCs or melanoma cells augmented the number of cytokine-producing, proliferating, and total NY-ESO-1-specific CD8(+) T cells. Collectively, our findings support the role of PD-1 as a regulator of NY-ESO-1-specific CD8(+) T cell expansion in the context of chronic Ag stimulation. They further support the use of PD-1/PD-L1 pathway blockade in cancer patients to partially restore NY-ESO-1-specific CD8(+) T cell numbers and functions, increasing the likelihood of tumor regression.

Temporal changes in mRNA expression of the brain nutrient transporters in the lithium-pilocarpine model of epilepsy in the immature and adult rat.

The lithium-pilocarpine model mimics most features of human temporal lobe epilepsy. Following our prior studies of cerebral metabolic changes, here we explored the expression of transporters for glucose (GLUT1 and GLUT3) and monocarboxylates (MCT1 and MCT2) during and after status epilepticus (SE) induced by lithium-pilocarpine in PN10, PN21, and adult rats. In situ hybridization was used to study the expression of transporter mRNAs during the acute phase (1, 4, 12 and 24h of SE), the latent phase, and the early and late chronic phases. During SE, GLUT1 expression was increased throughout the brain between 1 and 12h of SE, more strongly in adult rats; GLUT3 increased only transiently, at 1 and 4h of SE and mainly in PN10 rats; MCT1 was increased at all ages but 5-10-fold more in adult than in immature rats; MCT2 expression increased mainly in adult rats. At all ages, MCT1 and MCT2 up-regulation was limited to the circuit of seizures while GLUT1 and GLUT3 changes were more widespread. During the latent and chronic phases, the expression of nutrient transporters was normal in PN10 rats. In PN21 rats, GLUT1 was up-regulated in all brain regions. In contrast, in adult rats GLUT1 expression was down-regulated in the piriform cortex, hilus and CA1 as a result of extensive neuronal death. The changes in nutrient transporter expression reported here further support previous findings in other experimental models demonstrating rapid transcriptional responses to marked changes in cerebral energetic/glucose demand.

Simple method for detection of MYH11 DNA rearrangements in patients with inv(16)(p13q22) and acute myeloid leukemia.

The pericentric inversion on chromosome 16 [inv(16)(p13q22)] and related t(16;16)(p13;q22) are recurrent aberrations associated with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) M4 Eo. Both abberations result in a fusion of the core binding factor beta (CBFB) and smooth muscle myosin heavy chain gene (MYH11). A selected genomic 6.9-kb BamHl probe detects MYH11 DNA rearrangements in 18 of 19 inv(16)/t(16;16) patients tested using HindIII digested DNA. The rearranged fragments were not detectable after remission in two cases tested, while they were present after relapse in one of these two cases tested.

Skin fibroblast model to study an impaired glutathione synthesis: consequences of a genetic polymorphism on the proteome.

An impaired glutathione (GSH) synthesis was observed in several multifactorial diseases, including schizophrenia and myocardial infarction. Genetic studies revealed an association between schizophrenia and a GAG trinucleotide repeat (TNR) polymorphism in the catalytic subunit (GCLC) of the glutamate cysteine ligase (GCL). Disease-associated genotypes of this polymorphism correlated with a decrease in GCLC protein expression, GCL activity and GSH content. To clarify consequences of a decreased GCL activity at the proteome level, three schizophrenia patients and three controls have been selected based on the GCLC GAG TNR polymorphism. Fibroblast cultures were obtained by skin biopsy and were challenged with tert-butylhydroquinone (t-BHQ), a substance known to induce oxidative stress. Proteome changes were analyzed by two dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) and results revealed 10 spots that were upregulated in patients following t-BHQ treatment, but not in controls. Nine corresponding proteins could be identified by MALDI mass spectrometry and these proteins are involved in various cellular functions, including energy metabolism, oxidative stress response, and cytoskeletal reorganization. In conclusion, skin fibroblasts of subjects with an impaired GSH synthesis showed an altered proteome reaction in response to oxidative stress. Furthermore, the study corroborates the use of fibroblasts as an additional mean to study vulnerability factors of psychiatric diseases.

BTLA mediates inhibition of human tumor-specific CD8+ T cells that can be partially reversed by vaccination.

The function of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells, which may protect against both infectious and malignant diseases, can be impaired by ligation of their inhibitory receptors, which include CTL-associated protein 4 (CTLA-4) and programmed cell death 1 (PD-1). Recently, B and T lymphocyte attenuator (BTLA) was identified as a novel inhibitory receptor with structural and functional similarities to CTLA-4 and PD-1. BTLA triggering leads to decreased antimicrobial and autoimmune T cell responses in mice, but its functions in humans are largely unknown. Here we have demonstrated that as human viral antigen-specific CD8+ T cells differentiated from naive to effector cells, their surface expression of BTLA was gradually downregulated. In marked contrast, human melanoma tumor antigen-specific effector CD8+ T cells persistently expressed high levels of BTLA in vivo and remained susceptible to functional inhibition by its ligand herpes virus entry mediator (HVEM). Such persistence of BTLA expression was also found in tumor antigen-specific CD8+ T cells from melanoma patients with spontaneous antitumor immune responses and after conventional peptide vaccination. Remarkably, addition of CpG oligodeoxynucleotides to the vaccine formulation led to progressive downregulation of BTLA in vivo and consequent resistance to BTLA-HVEM-mediated inhibition. Thus, BTLA activation inhibits the function of human CD8+ cancer-specific T cells, and appropriate immunotherapy may partially overcome this inhibition.

Structure of the glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol membrane anchor of the Leishmania major promastigote surface protease.

In common with many other plasma membrane glycoproteins of eukaryotic origin, the promastigote surface protease (PSP) of the protozoan parasite Leishmania contains a glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol (GPI) membrane anchor. The GPI anchor of Leishmania major PSP was purified following proteolysis of the PSP and analyzed by two-dimensional 1H-1H NMR, compositional and methylation linkage analyses, chemical and enzymatic modifications, and amino acid sequencing. From these results, the structure of the GPI-containing peptide was found to be Asp-Gly-Gly-Asn-ethanolamine-PO4-6Man alpha 1-6Man alpha 1-4GlcN alpha 1-6myo-inositol-1-PO4-(1-alkyl-2-acyl-glycerol). The glycan structure is identical to the conserved glycan core regions of the GPI anchor of Trypanosoma brucei variant surface glycoprotein and rat brain Thy-1 antigen, supporting the notion that this portion of GPIs are highly conserved. The phosphatidylinositol moiety of the PSP anchor is unusual, containing a fully saturated, unbranched 1-O-alkyl chain (mainly C24:0) and a mixture of fully saturated unbranched 2-O-acyl chains (C12:0, C14:0, C16:0, and C18:0). This lipid composition differs significantly from those of the GPIs of T. brucei variant surface glycoprotein and mammalian erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase but is similar to that of a family of glycosylated phosphoinositides found uniquely in Leishmania.

Localization and expression of EDS5H a homologue of the SA transporter EDS5.

BACKGROUND: An important signal transduction pathway in plant defence depends on the accumulation of salicylic acid (SA). SA is produced in chloroplasts and the multidrug and toxin extrusion transporter ENHANCED DISEASE SUSCEPTIBILITY5 (EDS5; At4g39030) is necessary for the accumulation of SA after pathogen and abiotic stress. EDS5 is localized at the chloroplast and functions in transporting SA from the chloroplast to the cytoplasm. EDS5 has a homologue called EDS5H (EDS5 HOMOLOGUE; At2g21340) but its relationship to EDS5 has not been described and its function is not known. RESULTS: EDS5H exhibits about 72% similarity and 59% identity to EDS5. In contrast to EDS5 that is induced after pathogen inoculation, EDS5H was constitutively expressed in all green tissues, independently of pathogen infection. Both transporters are located at the envelope of the chloroplast, the compartment of SA biosynthesis. EDS5H is not involved with the accumulation of SA after inoculation with a pathogen or exposure to UV stress. A phylogenetic analysis supports the hypothesis that EDS5H may be an H(+)/organic acid antiporter like EDS5. CONCLUSIONS: The data based on genetic and molecular studies indicate that EDS5H despite its homology to EDS5 does not contribute to pathogen-induced SA accumulation like EDS5. EDS5H most likely transports related substances such as for example phenolic acids, but unlikely SA.