The underestimation of compliance to direct help requests explained by adaptive sampling

Helping behavior is any intentional behavior that benefits another living being or group (Hogg & Vaughan, 2010). People tend to underestimate the probability that others will comply with their direct requests for help (Flynn & Lake, 2008). This implies that when they need help, they will assess the probability of getting it (De Paulo, 1982, cited in Flynn & Lake, 2008) and then they will tend to estimate one that is actually lower than the real chance, so they may not even consider worth asking for it. Existing explanations for this phenomenon attribute it to a mistaken cost computation by the help seeker, who will emphasize the instrumental cost of “saying yes”, ignoring that the potential helper also needs to take into account the social cost of saying “no”. And the truth is that, especially in face-to-face interactions, the discomfort caused by refusing to help can be very high. In short, help seekers tend to fail to realize that it might be more costly to refuse to comply with a help request rather than accepting. A similar effect has been observed when estimating trustworthiness of people. Fetchenhauer and Dunning (2010) showed that people also tend to underestimate it. This bias is reduced when, instead of asymmetric feedback (getting feedback only when deciding to trust the other person), symmetric feedback (always given) was provided. This cause could as well be applicable to help seeking as people only receive feedback when they actually make their request but not otherwise. Fazio, Shook, and Eiser (2004) studied something that could be reinforcing these outcomes: Learning asymmetries. By means of a computer game called BeanFest, they showed that people learn better about negatively valenced objects (beans in this case) than about positively valenced ones. This learning asymmetry esteemed from “information gain being contingent on approach behavior” (p. 293), which could be identified with what Fetchenhauer and Dunning mention as ‘asymmetric feedback’, and hence also with help requests. Fazio et al. also found a generalization asymmetry in favor of negative attitudes versus positive ones. They attributed it to a negativity bias that “weights resemblance to a known negative more heavily than resemblance to a positive” (p. 300). Applied to help seeking scenarios, this would mean that when facing an unknown situation, people would tend to generalize and infer that is more likely that they get a negative rather than a positive outcome from it, so, along with what it was said before, people will be more inclined to think that they will get a “no” when requesting help. Denrell and Le Mens (2011) present a different perspective when trying to explain judgment biases in general. They deviate from the classical inappropriate information processing (depicted among other by Fiske & Taylor, 2007, and Tversky & Kahneman, 1974) and explain this in terms of ‘adaptive sampling’. Adaptive sampling is a sampling mechanism in which the selection of sample items is conditioned by the values of the variable of interest previously observed (Thompson, 2011). Sampling adaptively allows individuals to safeguard themselves from experiences they went through once and turned out to lay negative outcomes. However, it also prevents them from giving a second chance to those experiences to get an updated outcome that could maybe turn into a positive one, a more positive one, or just one that regresses to the mean, whatever direction that implies. That, as Denrell and Le Mens (2011) explained, makes sense: If you go to a restaurant, and you did not like the food, you do not choose that restaurant again. This is what we think could be happening when asking for help: When we get a “no”, we stop asking. And here, we want to provide a complementary explanation for the underestimation of the probability that others comply with our direct help requests based on adaptive sampling. First, we will develop and explain a model that represents the theory. Later on, we will test it empirically by means of experiments, and will elaborate on the analysis of its results.

Diverging Cave- and River-Dwelling Newts Exert the Same Mate Preference in their Native Light Conditions

When colonizing a new habitat, populations must adapt their sexual behaviour to new ecological constraints. Because caves display drastically different conditions from surface habitats and cave animals are deprived from visual information, hypogean populations are expected to have modified their mate preference and signalling behaviour after cave colonization. Here, we experimentally examined the female preference and the sexual behaviour of brook newts Calotriton asper from different cave and river populations, either in light or in darkness. Our results suggest that females prefer large individuals in both hypogean and epigean populations, but that this preference is only expressed in the light conditions of their native habitat. Hence, some mate choice criteria would be maintained across genetically divergent populations and throughout dissimilar habitats. However, this sexual behaviour is likely to be expressed via a different sensory pathway in the different habitats, suggesting that a sensory shift has occurred in cave populations, enabling animals to communicate through a non-visual channel.

Mice with chronic GSH deficit display phenotypical anomalies that resemble key aspects of schizophrenia

ABSTRACTSchizophrenia is a major psychiatric disorder occurring with a prevalence of 1% in the worldwide population. It develops progressively with psychosis onset in late adolescence or earlyadulthood. The disorder can take many different facets and has a highly diffuse anddistributed neuropathology including deficits in major neurotransmitter systems,myelination, stress regulation, and metabolism. The delayed onset and the heterogeneouspathology suggest that schizophrenia is a developmental disease that arises from interplayof genetic and environmental factors during sensitive periods. Redox dysregulation due to animbalance between pro-oxidants and antioxidant defence mechanisms is among the riskfactors for schizophrenia. Glutathione (GSH) is the major cellular redox regulator andantioxidant. Levels of GSH are decreased in cerebrospinal fluid, prefrontal cortex and postmortemstriatum of schizophrenia patients. Moreover, polymorphisms of the key GSHsynthesizingenzyme, glutamate-cysteine ligase, modifier (GCLM) subunit, are associatedwith the disease, suggesting that GSH deficit is of genetic origin. Here we used miceknockout (KO) for the GCLM gene, which display chronic GSH deficit (~70 to 80% decrease)to investigate the direct link between redox dysregulation and schizophrenia. Accordingly,we evaluated whether GCLM KO compared to normal wildtype mice display behavioralchanges that relate to schizophrenia symptoms and whether their brains showmorphological, functional or metabolic alterations that resemble those in patients.Moreover, we exposed pubertal GCLM mice to repeated mild stress and measured theirhormonal and behavioral stress reactivity. Our data show that chronic GSH deficit isassociated with altered emotion- and stress-related behaviors, deficient prepulse inhibition,pronounced amphetamine-induced hyperlocomotion but normal spatial learning andworking memory. These changes represent important schizophrenia endophenotypes.Moreover, this particular pattern of change indicates impairment of the ventralhippocampus (VH) and related circuitry as opposed to the dorsal hippocampus (DH), which isimplicated in spatial information processing. This is consistent with a selective deficit ofparvalbumin positive interneurons and gamma oscillation in the VH but not DH. Increasedlevels of circulating stress hormones in KO mice following pubertal stress corroborate VHdysfunction as it is involved in negative feedback control of the stress response. VHstructural and functional deficits are frequently found in the schizophrenic brain. Metabolicevaluation of the developing GCLM KO anterior cortex using in vivo magnetic resonancespectroscopy revealed elevated glutamine (Gln), glutamate (Glu), Gln/Glu and N-acetylaspartate(NAA) during the pre-pubertal period. Similar changes are reported in earlyschizophrenia. Overall, we observe phenotypic anomalies in GSH deficient GCLM KO micethat correspond to major schizophrenia endophenotypes. This supports an important rolefor redox dysregulation in schizophrenia and validates the GCLM KO mouse as model for thedisease. Moreover, our results indicate that puberty may be a sensitive period for redoxsensitivechanges highliting the importance of early intervention. Gln, Gln/Glu, Glu and NAAmay qualify as early metabolic biomarkers to identify young at-risk individuals. Since chronictreatment with NAC normalized most metabolic changes in GCLM KO mice, NAC may be oneadjunct treatment of choice for early intervention in patients.RESUMELa schizophrénie est une maladie psychiatrique majeure avec une prévalence de 1% dans lapopulation. Son développement est progressif, les premières psychoses apparaissant àl'adolescence ou au début de l'âge adulte. La maladie a plusieurs présentations et uneneuropathologie étendue, qui inclut des déficits neurochimiques, métaboliques, de lamyélination et de la régulation du stress. L'émergence tardive et l'hétérogénéité de lapathologie suggèrent que la schizophrénie est une maladie développementale, favorisée pardes facteurs génétiques et environnementaux durant des périodes sensibles. La dérégulationrédox, due à un déséquilibre entre facteurs pro-oxidantes et défenses anti-oxidantes,constitue un facteur de risque. Le glutathion (GSH) est le principal régulateur rédox et antioxidantdes cellules, ses taux sont diminués dans le liquide céphalorachidien, le cortexpréfrontal et le striatum de patients. De plus, des variations du gène codant la sous-unitémodulatrice (GCLM) de la glutamate-cystéine ligase, enzyme de synthèse du GSH, sontassociés la maladie, suggérant que le déficit observé chez les patients est d'originegénétique. Nous avons donc utilisé des souris ayant une délétion du gène GCLM (KO), quiont un déficit chronique en GSH (70-80%), afin d'étudier le lien entre une dérégulation rédoxet la schizophrénie. Nous avons évalué si ces souris présentent des altérationscomportementales analogues aux symptômes de la maladie, et des modificationsstructurelles, fonctionnelles et métaboliques au niveau du cerveau, ressemblant à celles despatients. De plus, nous avons soumis les souris à des stresses modérés durant la puberté,puis mesuré les réponses hormonales et comportementales. Les animaux présentent undéficit pré-attentionnel du traitement des informations moto-sensorielles, un déficit pourcertains apprentissages, une réponse accrue à l'amphétamine, mais leurs mémoires spatialeet de travail sont préservées. Ces atteintes comportementales sont analogues à certainsendophénotypes de la schizophrénie. De plus, ces changements comportementaux sontlargement expliqués par une perturbation morphologique et fonctionnelle de l'hippocampeventral (HV). Ainsi, nous avons observé un déficit sélectif des interneurones immunoréactifsà la parvalbumine et une désynchronisation neuronale dans l'HV. L'hippocampe dorsal,impliqué dans l'orientation spatiale, demeure en revanche intact. L'augmentationd'hormones de stress dans le sang des souris KO suite à un stress prépubertal soutien aussil'hypothèse d'une dysfonction de l'HV, connu pour moduler ce type de réponse. Des déficitsstructurels et fonctionnels dans l'hippocampe antérieur (ventral) ont d'ailleurs été rapportéschez des patients schizophrènes. Par de résonance magnétique, nous avons également suivile profil métabolique du le cortex antérieur au cours du développement postnatal des sourisKO. Ces mesures ont révélé des taux élevés de glutamine (Gln), glutamate (Glu), du ratioGln/Glu, et de N-acétyl-aspartate (NAA) durant la période prépubertale. Des altérationssimilaires sont décrites chez les patients durant la phase précoce. Nous avons donc révélédes anomalies phénotypiques chez les souris GCLM KO qui reflètent certainsendophénotypes de la schizophrénie. Nos résultats appuient donc le rôle d'une dérégulationrédox dans l'émergence de la maladie et le potentiel des souris KO comme modèle. De plus,cette étude met en évidence la puberté comme période particulièrement sensible à unedérégulation rédox, renforçant l'importance d'une intervention thérapeutique précoce. Dansce cadre, Gln, Gln/Glu, Glu and NAA seraient des biomarqueurs clés pour identifier de jeunesindividus à risque. De part son efficacité dans notre modèle, NAC pourrait être unesubstance de choix dans le traitement précoce des patients.

Illusory contours: a window onto the neurophysiology of constructing perception.

Seeing seems effortless, despite the need to segregate and integrate visual information that varies in quality, quantity, and location. The extent to which seeing passively recapitulates the external world is challenged by phenomena such as illusory contours, an example of visual completion whereby borders are perceived despite their physical absence in the image. Instead, visual completion and seeing are increasingly conceived as active processes, dependent on information exchange across neural populations. How this is instantiated in the brain remains controversial. Divergent models emanate from single-unit and population-level electrophysiology, neuroimaging, and neurostimulation studies. We reconcile discrepant findings from different methods and disciplines, and underscore the importance of taking into account spatiotemporal brain dynamics in generating models of brain function and perception.

Differences based on fine motor behaviour in Parkinson's patients compared to an age matched control group in proprioceptive and visuo-proprioceptive test conditions

Personality differences based on fine motor precision performance were studied in early stage Parkinson's patients and an age-matched control group under two different test conditions: proprioceptive + visual information and proprioceptive information alone. A comparative data analysis for deviations of three measured movement types (transversal, frontal and sagittal) was done for both hands (dominant and non-dominant) with relation to personality dimensions. There were found significant differences between the two groups in decision making dimension and emotionality. After splitting the data for gender subgroups, some significant differences were found for men but not for women. The differences in fine motor task performance varied, being better in some directions for the Parkinson"s patients and worse in others. The findings may suggest that medication has both positive and negative effects on motor performance and provoke personality changes, being more pronounced in men.

Effectiveness of pharmacist care in the improvement of adherence to antidepressants: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND: Pharmacists can play a decisive role in the management of ambulatory patients with depression who have poor adherence to antidepressant drugs. OBJECTIVE: To systematically evaluate the effectiveness of pharmacist care in improving adherence of depressed outpatients to antidepressants. METHODS: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) was conducted. RCTs were identified through electronic databases (MEDLINE, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Institute for Scientific Information Web of Knowledge, and Spanish National Research Council) from inception to April 2010, reference lists were checked, and experts were consulted. RCTs that evaluated the impact of pharmacist interventions on improving adherence to antidepressants in depressed patients in an outpatient setting (community pharmacy or pharmacy service) were included. Methodologic quality was assessed and methodologic details and outcomes were extracted in duplicate. RESULTS: Six RCTs were identified. A total of 887 patients with an established diagnosis of depression who were initiating or maintaining pharmacologic treatment with antidepressant drugs and who received pharmacist care (459 patients) or usual care (428 patients) were included in the review. The most commonly reported interventions were patient education and monitoring, monitoring and management of toxicity and adverse effects, adherence promotion, provision of written or visual information, and recommendation or implementation of changes or adjustments in medication. Overall, no statistical heterogeneity or publication bias was detected. The pooled odds ratio, using a random effects model, was 1.64 (95% CI 1.24 to 2.17). Subgroup analysis showed no statistically significant differences in results by type of pharmacist involved, adherence measure, diagnostic tool, or analysis strategy. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that pharmacist intervention is effective in the improvement of patient adherence to antidepressants. However, data are still limited and we would recommend more research in this area, specifically outside of the US.

Kaasun jakauma paineellisissa sulpunkäsittelylaitteissa

Työn tarkoituksena oli tutkia kuinka kaasukuplat jakautuvat sellususpensioon, kun prosessiolosuhteita muutetaan. Kuplien kokojakauman avulla pyritään kartoittamaan kuinka kaasukuplat pilkkoutuvat ja onko olemassa raja-arvoa, milloin tehon lisäys ei enää pilko sellususpensiossa olevia kuplia pienemmiksi. Jakaumien avulla voidaan mahdollisesti kehittää kaasunpoistoa. Työssä selvitettiin voidaanko kameratekniikkaa käyttää kuplakokojen määrittämiseen sellusulpusta. Läpinäkymätön sellumassa tarjoaa kuvaukselle haasteellisen ympäristön. Myöskään kirjallisuudessa ei vastaavaa menetelmää aikaisemmin oltu käytetty. Kuvatusta materiaalista laskettiin kuplien halkaisijat, joita pyrittiin tarkastelemaan tilastollisesti. Tilastollinen tarkastelu toi eroja mittauspisteiden välille. Kuplien halkaisijoiden perusteella mallinnettiin kuplakokoon vaikuttavat prosessisuureet lineaarisella regressioanalyysillä. Mallinnuksen perusteella saatiinvasteisiin vaikuttavat riippumattomat muuttujat ja niiden matemaattiset malliyhtälöt. Tuloksina saatiin selville, että kuplien kokojakaumissa on eroja sekoitussäiliön eri puolilla. Sekoitussäiliössä suurten kuplien suhteellinen osuus kasvaa kaasupitoisuuden ja sakeuden noustessa. Mallinnuksen tärkeimpänä tuloksena voidaan todeta, että sakeus ja kaasutilavuus vaikuttavat kuplakokoon kasvattavasti. Kierrosnopeuden kasvattaminen pienentää kuplakokoa. Visuaalisen informaation avulla on helpompi ymmärtää kuinka kuplat käyttäytyvät.

Cellular mechanisms underlying the regulation of dendritic development by hepatocyte growth factor.

Acquisition of a mature dendritic morphology is critical for neural information processing. In particular, hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) controls dendritic arborization during brain development. However, the cellular mechanisms underlying the effects of HGF on dendritic growth remain elusive. Here, we show that HGF increases dendritic length and branching of rat cortical neurons through activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway. Activation of MAPK by HGF leads to the rapid and transient phosphorylation of cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB), a key step necessary for the control of dendritic development by HGF. In addition to CREB phosphorylation, regulation of dendritic growth by HGF requires the interaction between CREB and CREB-regulated transcription coactivator 1 (CRTC1), as expression of a mutated form of CREB unable to bind CRTC1 completely abolished the effects of HGF on dendritic morphology. Treatment of cortical neurons with HGF in combination with brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a member of the neurotrophin family that regulates dendritic development via similar mechanisms, showed additive effects on MAPK activation, CREB phosphorylation and dendritic growth. Collectively, these results support the conclusion that regulation of cortical dendritic morphology by HGF is mediated by activation of the MAPK pathway, phosphorylation of CREB and interaction of CREB with CRTC1.

Multi-slice three-dimensional myocardial strain tensor quantification using zHARP.

In this article we propose a novel method for calculating cardiac 3-D strain. The method requires the acquisition of myocardial short-axis (SA) slices only and produces the 3-D strain tensor at every point within every pair of slices. Three-dimensional displacement is calculated from SA slices using zHARP which is then used for calculating the local displacement gradient and thus the local strain tensor. There are three main advantages of this method. First, the 3-D strain tensor is calculated for every pixel without interpolation; this is unprecedented in cardiac MR imaging. Second, this method is fast, in part because there is no need to acquire long-axis (LA) slices. Third, the method is accurate because the 3-D displacement components are acquired simultaneously and therefore reduces motion artifacts without the need for registration. This article presents the theory of computing 3-D strain from two slices using zHARP, the imaging protocol, and both phantom and in-vivo validation.

Suivi neurodéveloppemental à 5ans des extrêmes prématurés et détection des difficultés sur le plan des fonctions exécutives [Detection of executive function disorders with a standard neurodevelopmental follow-up of premature children].

INTRODUCTION: A significant proportion of prematurely born children encounter behavioral difficulties, such as attention deficit or hyperactivity, which could be due to executive function disorders. AIMS: To examine whether the standard neurodevelopmental assessment offered to premature children in Switzerland recognizes executive function disorders. METHODS: The study population consisted of 49 children born before 29 weeks of gestation who were examined between 5 and 6 years of age with a standard assessment, with additional items to assess executive functioning. Children with severe neurodevelopmental impairment were excluded (mental retardation, cerebral palsy, autism). Standard assessment consisted in the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC), which comprises three subscales: sequential processes (analysis of sequential information), simultaneous processes (global analysis of visual information), and composite mental processes (CMP) (result of the other two scales), as well as a behavioral evaluation using the standardized Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Executive functioning was assessed with tasks evaluating visual attention, divided attention, and digit memory as well as with a specialized questionnaire, the Behavior Rating Index of Executive Functions (BRIEF), which evaluates several aspects of executive function (regulation, attention, flexibility, working memory, etc). RESULTS: Children were divided according to their results on the three K-ABC scales (< or>85), and the different neuropsychological tasks assessing executive function were compared between the groups. The CMP did not differentiate children with executive difficulties, whereas a score<85 on the sequential processes was significantly associated with worse visual and divided attention. There was a strong correlation between the SDQ and the BRIEF questionnaires. For both questionnaires, children receiving psychotherapy had significantly higher results. Children who presented behavioral problems assessed with the SDQ presented significantly higher scores on the BRIEF. CONCLUSION: A detailed analysis of the standard neurodevelopmental assessment allows the identification of executive function disorders in premature children. Children who performed below 85 on the sequential processes of the K-ABC had significantly more attentional difficulties on the neuropsychological tasks and therefore have to be recognized and carefully followed. Emotional regulation had a strong correlation with behavioral difficulties, which were suitably assessed with the SDQ, recognized by the families, and treated.

Using Pareto optimality to explore the topology and dynamics of the human connectome.

Graph theory has provided a key mathematical framework to analyse the architecture of human brain networks. This architecture embodies an inherently complex relationship between connection topology, the spatial arrangement of network elements, and the resulting network cost and functional performance. An exploration of these interacting factors and driving forces may reveal salient network features that are critically important for shaping and constraining the brain's topological organization and its evolvability. Several studies have pointed to an economic balance between network cost and network efficiency with networks organized in an 'economical' small-world favouring high communication efficiency at a low wiring cost. In this study, we define and explore a network morphospace in order to characterize different aspects of communication efficiency in human brain networks. Using a multi-objective evolutionary approach that approximates a Pareto-optimal set within the morphospace, we investigate the capacity of anatomical brain networks to evolve towards topologies that exhibit optimal information processing features while preserving network cost. This approach allows us to investigate network topologies that emerge under specific selection pressures, thus providing some insight into the selectional forces that may have shaped the network architecture of existing human brains.

Käyttäjän päämäärien ja kiinnostuksen tutkimus : silmänliikkeiden mittaus, tulkinta ja sovellus

Summary: Inferring users intentions and interests from eye movements

Spektrikuvien tiivistäminen itseorganisoituvan kartan avulla.

Vuosi vuodelta kasvava tietokoneiden prosessointikyky on mahdollistanut harmaataso- ja RGB-värikuvia tarkempien spektrikuvien käsittelyn järjellisessä ajassa ilman suuria kustannuksia. Ongelmana on kuitenkin, ettei talletus- ja tiedonsiirtomedia ole kehittynyt prosessointikyvyn vauhdissa. Ratkaisu tähän ongelmaan on spektrikuvien tiivistäminen talletuksen ja tiedonsiirron ajaksi. Tässä työssä esitellään menetelmä, jossa spektrikuva tiivistetään kahdessa vaiheessa: ensin ryhmittelemällä itseorganisoituvan kartan (SOM) avulla ja toisessa vaiheessa jatketaan tiivistämistä perinteisin menetelmin. Saadut tiivistyssuhteet ovat merkittäviä vääristymän pysyessä siedettävänä. Työ on tehty Lappeenrannan teknillisen korkeakoulun Tietotekniikan osaston Tietojenkäsittelytekniikan tutkimuslaboratoriossa osana laajempaa kuvantiivistyksen tutkimushanketta.

Education and Training in Forensic Intelligence: a New Challenge

From recent calls for positioning forensic scientists within the criminal justice system, but also policing and intelligence missions, this paper emphasizes the need for the development of educational and training programs in the area of forensic intelligence, It is argued that an imbalance exists between perceived and actual understanding of forensic intelligence by police and forensic science managers, and that this imbalance can only be overcome through education. The challenge for forensic intelligence education and training is therefore to devise programs that increase forensic intelligence awareness, firstly for managers to help prevent poor decisions on how to develop information processing. Two recent European courses are presented as examples of education offerings, along with lessons learned and suggested paths forward. It is concluded that the new focus on forensic intelligence could restore a pro-active approach to forensic science, better quantify its efficiency and let it get more involved in investigative and managerial decisions. A new educational challenge is opened to forensic science university programs around the world: to refocus criminal trace analysis on a more holistic security problem solving approach.

Developing and Applying Generative Market Intelligence within Multinational Companies

Tutkielman tarkoitus on kehittää monikansallisille yrityksille tuottavan markkinaälyn malli, jonka avulla yritykset pystyvät käsittelemään muuttuvasta ja globalisoituvasta markkinaympäristöstä aiheutuvaa epävarmuutta. Malli koostuu pääosin kolmesta käsitteestä: markkinainformaation prosessoinnista, markkinasuuntautuneisuudesta ja organisationaalisesta oppimisesta. Tutkimuksessa osoitetaan, kuinka näiden samanaikainen soveltaminen johtaa synergiaetuihin. Lähdeaineistona käytettiin alan kirjallisuutta. Lisäksi haastateltiin neljää johtajaa monikansallisista yrityksistä. Käytännössä markkinaälyn soveltamisen haasteet liittyvät lähinnä markkinainformaation prosessoinnin asenteellisiin ja psykologisiin aspekteihin. Ihmisten tulisi ymmärtää, että koko yritys hyötyy heidän halukkuudestaan tiedon tuottamiseen ja jakamiseen. Lisäksi tietoa itsessään voimavarana tulisi kunnioittaa