Recommendation of RILEM TC 178-TMC: Testing and modelling chloride penetration in concrete

This RILEM Technical Recommendation intends to give a general description of methods of sampling for obtaining chloride concentration profiles in concrete, applicable both for laboratory cast concrete specimens, for concrete cores taken from structures and for testing on site. These sampling procedures may be applied for obtaining concentration profiles of any other chemical species present in concrete.

Feasibility of electrochemical chloride extraction from structural reinforced concrete using a sprayed conductive graphite powder–cement paste as anode

This article summarizes research on the application of a conductive cement paste as an anode in the now classical technique of electrochemical extraction of chlorides applied to a concrete structural element by spraying the paste on the surface of a concrete structural element, a pillar. Sprayed conductive cement paste, by adding graphite powder, is particularly useful to treat sizable vertical surfaces such are structural supports. Outcomes indicate that this kind of anode not only provides electrochemical chloride removal with similar efficiency, but also is able to retain moisture even without the use of a continuous dampening system.

Chloride Penetration Prediction in Concrete through an Empirical Model Based on Constant Flux Diffusion

An empirical model based on constant flux is presented for chloride transport through concrete in atmospherical exposure conditions. A continuous supply of chlorides is assumed as a constant mass flux at the exposed concrete surface. The model is applied to experimental chloride profiles obtained from a real marine structure, and results are compared with the classical error-function model. The proposed model shows some advantages. It yields a better predictive capacity than the classical error-function model. The previously observed chloride surface concentration increases are compatible with the proposed model. Nevertheless, the predictive capacity of the model can fail if the concrete microstructure changes with time. The model seems to be appropriate for well-maturated concretes exposed to a marine environment in atmospherical conditions.

Efficiency of a conductive cement-based anodic system for the application of cathodic protection, cathodic prevention and electrochemical chloride extraction to control corrosion in reinforced concrete structures

This article describes the research carried out regarding the application of cathodic protection (CP) and cathodic prevention (CPrev), in some cases with a pre-treatment of electrochemical chloride extraction (ECE), on representative specimens of reinforced concrete structures, using an anodic system consisting of a graphite-cement paste applied as a coating on the surface. The aim of this research is to find out the competence of this anode for the aforementioned electrochemical treatments. The efficiency of this anode has been clearly demonstrated, as well as its capability to apply a combined process of ECE and after CP.

Procedure for calculating the chloride diffusion coefficient and surface concentration from a profile having a maximum beyond the concrete surface

Chlorides induce local corrosion in the steel reinforcements when reaching the bar surface. The measurement of the rate of ingress of these ions, is made by mathematically fitting the so called “error function equation” into the chloride concentration profile, obtaining so the diffusion coefficient and the chloride concentration at the concrete surface. However, the chloride profiles do not always follow Fick’s law by having the maximum concentration at the concrete surface, but often the profile shows a maximum concentration more in the interior, which indicates a different composition and performance of the most external concrete layer with respect to the internal zones. The paper presents a procedure prepared during the time of the RILEM TC 178-TMC: “Testing and modeling chloride penetration in concrete”, which suggests neglecting the external layer where the chloride concentration increases and using the maximum as an “apparent” surface concentration, called C max and to fit the error function equation into the decreasing concentration profile towards the interior. The prediction of evolution should be made also from the maximum.

Shape Effect of Electrochemical Chloride Extraction in Structural Reinforced Concrete Elements Using a New Cement-Based Anodic System

This article shows the research carried out by the authors focused on how the shape of structural reinforced concrete elements treated with electrochemical chloride extraction can affect the efficiency of this process. Assuming the current use of different anode systems, the present study considers the comparison of results between conventional anodes based on Ti-RuO2 wire mesh and a cement-based anodic system such as a paste of graphite-cement. Reinforced concrete elements of a meter length were molded to serve as laboratory specimens, to closely represent authentic structural supports, with circular and rectangular sections. Results confirm almost equal performances for both types of anode systems when electrochemical chloride extraction is applied to isotropic structural elements. In the case of anisotropic ones, such as rectangular sections with no uniformly distributed rebar, differences in electrical flow density were detected during the treatment. Those differences were more extreme for Ti-RuO2 mesh anode system. This particular shape effect is evidenced by obtaining the efficiencies of electrochemical chloride extraction in different points of specimens.

Presence of Siloxanes in the Biogas of a Wastewater Treatment Plant Separation in Condensates and Influence of the Dose of Iron Chloride on its Elimination

The siloxanes present in the biogas produced during anaerobic digestion damage the mechanism of cogeneration equipment and, consequently, negatively affect the energy valorization process. For this reason, the detection and elimination of these silicon-derived chemical compounds are a priority in the management of cogeneration facilities. In this regard, the objectives of this paper are, firstly, to characterize the siloxanes in the biogas and, secondly, to qualitatively evaluate the influence of the dose of iron chloride on its elimination. The research was performed at the Rincón de León Wastewater Treatment Plant (Alicante, Spain). The outflow biogas of the digesters and of the pressurized gasometers was sampled and analyzed. The results obtained made it possible to demonstrate, firstly, the absence of linear siloxanes and that, of the cyclic siloxanes, the predominant type was decamethylcyclopentasiloxane, and, secondly, that the addition of iron chloride in the digesters significantly reduces the siloxane content in the biogas. Additionally, it was demonstrated that the process of compression of the biogas, with the elimination of condensates, also produces significant reductions in the concentration of siloxanes in the biogas.

List of benefactors who contributed to replacement of books and philosophical apparatus, May 4, 1764

This document lists the names of subscribers who promised funds towards the rebuilding of the library and philosophical apparatus. Entries are divided among three columns, "Apparatus," "Library," and "At large," and include the donor's name and amount promised. Gifts to the library included actual books as well as funds for book purchases.

List of benefactors who contributed to replacement of books and philosophical apparatus, 1765

This document lists the names of subscribers who promised funds towards the rebuilding of the library and philosophical apparatus. Entries are divided among three columns, "Apparatus," "Library," and "At large," and include the donor's name and amount promised. Gifts to the library included actual books as well as funds for book purchases.

Dodecyltrimethylammonium chloride adsorption at the silica/water interface studied by Sum Frequency Generation

La génération des fréquences somme (SFG), une technique spectroscopique spécifique aux interfaces, a été utilisée pour caractériser les changements de la structure macromoléculaire du surfactant cationique chlorure de dodécyltriméthylammonium (DTAC) à l’interface silice/eau dans une plage de pH variant entre 3 et 11. Les conditions expérimentales ont été choisies pour imiter les conditions les plus communes trouvées pendant les opérations de récupération assistée du pétrole. Particulièrement, la silice a été étudiée, car elle est un des composantes des surfaces minérales des réservoirs de grès, et l’adsorption du surfactant a été étudiée avec une force ionique pertinente pour les fluides de la fracturation hydraulique. Les spectres SFG ont présenté des pics détectables avec une amplitude croissante dans la région des étirements des groupes méthylène et méthyle lorsque le pH est diminué jusqu’à 3 ou augmenté jusqu’à 11, ce qui suggère des changements de la structure des agrégats de surfactant à l’interface silice/eau à une concentration de DTAC au-delà de la concentration micellaire critique. De plus, des changements dans l’intensité SFG ont été observés pour le spectre de l’eau quand la concentration de DTAC augmente de 0,2 à 50 mM dans les conditions acide, neutre et alcaline. À pH 3, près du point de charge zéro de la surface de silice, l’excès de charge positive en raison de l’adsorption du surfactant cationique crée un champ électrostatique qui oriente les molécules d’eau à l’interface. À pH 7 et 11, ce qui sont des valeurs au-dessus du point de charge zéro de la surface de silice, le champ électrostatique négatif à l’interface silice/eau diminue par un ordre de grandeur avec l’adsorption du surfactant comme résultat de la compensation de la charge négative à la surface par la charge positive du DTAC. Les résultats SFG ont été corrélés avec des mesures de l’angle de contact et de la tension interfaciale à pH 3, 7 et 11.