Agricultural practices and horizontal nutrient balances in urban gardens and the alternative use of urban agricultural land in Khartoum, Sudan

The surge in the urban population evident in most developing countries is a worldwide phenomenon, and often the result of drought, conflicts, poverty and the lack of education opportunities. In parallel with the growth of the cities is the growing need for food which leads to the burgeoning expansion of urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA). In this context, urban agriculture (UA) contributes significantly to supplying local markets with both vegetable and animal produce. As an income generating activity, UA also contributes to the livelihoods of poor urban dwellers. In order to evaluate the nutrient status of urban soils in relation to garden management, this study assessed nutrient fluxes (inputs and outputs) in gardens on urban Gerif soils on the banks of the River Nile in Khartoum, the capital city of Sudan. To achieve this objective, a preliminary baseline survey was carried out to describe the structure of the existing garden systems. In cooperation with the author of another PhD thesis (Ms. Ishtiag Abdalla), alternative uses of cow dung in brick making kilns in urban Khartoum were assessed; and the socio-economic criteria of the brick kiln owners or agents, economical and plant nutritional value of animal dung and the gaseous emission related to brick making activities were assessed. A total of 40 household heads were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire to collect information on demographic, socio-economic and migratory characteristics of the household members, the gardening systems used and the problems encountered in urban gardening. Based on the results of this survey, gardens were divided into three groups: mixed vegetable-fodder gardens, mixed vegetable-subsistence livestock gardens and pure vegetable gardens. The results revealed that UA is the exclusive domain of men, 80% of them non-native to Khartoum. The harvested produce in all gardens was market oriented and represented the main source of income for 83% of the gardeners. Fast growing leafy vegetables such as Jew’s mallow (Corchorous olitorius L.), purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.) and rocket (Eruca sativa Mill.) were the dominant cultivated species. Most of the gardens (95%) were continuously cultivated throughout the year without any fallow period, unless they were flooded. Gardeners were not generally aware of the importance of crop diversity, which may help them overcome the strongly fluctuating market prices for their produce and thereby strengthen the contributions of UA to the overall productivity of the city. To measure nutrient fluxes, four gardens were selected and their nutrients inputs and outputs flows were monitored. In each garden, all plots were monitored for quantification of nutrient inputs and outputs. To determine soil chemical fertility parameters in each of the studied gardens, soil samples were taken from three selected plots at the beginning of the study in October 2007 (gardens L1, L2 and H1) and in April 2008 (garden H2) and at the end of the study period in March 2010. Additional soil sampling occurred in May 2009 to assess changes in the soil nutrient status after the River Nile flood of 2008 had receded. Samples of rain and irrigation water (river and well-water) were analyzed for nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and carbon (C) content to determine their nutrient inputs. Catchment traps were installed to quantify the sediment yield from the River Nile flood. To quantify the nutrient inputs of sediments, samples were analyzed for N, P, K and organic carbon (Corg) content, cation exchange capacity (CEC) and the particle size distribution. The total nutrient inputs were calculated by multiplying the sediment nutrient content by total sediment deposits on individual gardens. Nutrient output in the form of harvested yield was quantified at harvest of each crop. Plant samples from each field were dried, and analyzed for their N, P, K and Corg content. Cumulative leaching losses of mineral N and P were estimated in a single plot in garden L1 from December 1st 2008 to July 1st 2009 using 12 ion exchange resins cartridges. Nutrients were extracted and analyzed for nitrate (NO3--N), ammonium (NH4+-N) and phosphate PO4-3-P. Changes in soil nutrient balance were assessed as inputs minus outputs. The results showed that across gardens, soil N and P concentrations increased from 2007 to 2009, while particle size distribution remained unchanged. Sediment loads and their respective contents of N, P and Corg decreased significantly (P < 0.05) from the gardens of the downstream lowlands (L1 and L2) to the gardens of the upstream highlands (H1 and H2). No significant difference was found in K deposits. None of the gardens received organic fertilizers and the only mineral fertilizer applied was urea (46-0-0). This equaled 29, 30, 54, and 67% of total N inputs to gardens L1, L2, H1, and H2, respectively. Sediment deposits of the River Nile floods contributed on average 67, 94, 6 and 42% to the total N, P, K and C inputs in lowland gardens and 33, 86, 4 and 37% of total N, P, K and C inputs in highland gardens. Irrigation water and rainfall contributed substantially to K inputs representing 96, 92, 94 and 96% of total K influxes in garden L1, L2, H1 and H2, respectively. Following the same order, total annual DM yields in the gardens were 26, 18, 16 and 1.8 t ha-1. Annual leaching losses were estimated to be 0.02 kg NH4+-N ha-1 (SE = 0.004), 0.03 kg NO3--N ha-1 (SE = 0.002) and 0.005 kg PO4-3-P ha-1 (SE = 0.0007). Differences between nutrient inputs and outputs indicated negative nutrient balances for P and K and positive balances of N and C for all gardens. The negative balances in P and K call for adoptions of new agricultural techniques such as regular manure additions or mulching which may enhance the soil organic matter status. A quantification of fluxes not measured in our study such as N2-fixation, dry deposition and gaseous emissions of C and N would be necessary to comprehensively assess the sustainability of these intensive gardening systems. The second part of the survey dealt with the brick making kilns. A total of 50 brick kiln owners/or agents were interviewed from July to August 2009, using a semi-structured questionnaire. The data collected included general information such as age, family size, education, land ownership, number of kilns managed and/or owned, number of months that kilns were in operation, quantity of inputs (cow dung and fuel wood) used, prices of inputs and products across the production season. Information related to the share value of the land on which the kilns were built and annual income for urban farmers and annual returns from dung for the animal raisers was also collected. Using descriptive statistics, budget calculation and Gini coefficient, the results indicated that renting the land to brick making kilns yields a 5-fold higher return than the rent for agriculture. Gini coefficient showed that the kiln owners had a more equal income distribution compared to farmers. To estimate emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and losses of N, P, K, Corg and DM from cow dung when used in brick making, samples of cow dung (loose and compacted) were collected from different kilns and analyzed for their N, P, K and Corg content. The procedure modified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 1994) was used to estimate the gaseous emissions of cow dung and fuel wood. The amount of deforested wood was estimated according to the default values for wood density given by Dixon et al. (1991) and the expansion ratio for branches and small trees given by Brown et al. (1989). The data showed the monetary value of added N and P from cow dung was lower than for mineral fertilizers. Annual consumption of compacted dung (381 t DM) as biomass fuel by far exceeded the consumption of fuel wood (36 t DM). Gaseous emissions from cow dung and fuel wood were dominated by CO2, CO and CH4. Considering that Gerif land in urban Khartoum supports a multifunctional land use system, efficient use of natural resources (forest, dung, land and water) will enhance the sustainability of the UA and brick making activities. Adoption of new kilns with higher energy efficiency will reduce the amount of biomass fuels (cow dung and wood) used the amount of GHGs emitted and the threat to the few remaining forests.

Die Suche nach Entwicklungsperspektiven für schrumpfende Städte und Regionen

Der Forschungsverbund ‚Stadt 2030‘ mit einer Laufzeit von etwa vier Jahren zwischen 2000 und 2004, mit seinen 21 Teilprojekten, mit über 350 Mitarbeiterinnen und Mitarbeitern aus allen Bereichen der Stadtforschung, aus kommunalen Verwaltungen und Kommunalpolitik sowie mit seinem Etat von ca. 18 Mio. Euro gilt bis heute vielfach als umfangreichstes Stadtforschungsprojekt in der deutschen Geschichte. Er hatte zum Ziel, in einer engen Kooperation zwischen Kommunalverwaltungen und wissenschaftlichen Einrichtungen Zukunftskonzeptionen und Leitbilder für Städte und Regionen zu formulieren, deren Perspektive über drei Jahrzehnte reicht. In der Dissertation wird der Frage nachgegangen, wie sich der spezifische Untersuchungsansatz des Forschungsverbundes ‚Stadt 2030‘ auf die Suche nach räumlichen Entwicklungsperspektiven in schrumpfenden Städten und Regionen ausgewirkt hat. Es geht dabei zum einen um eine speziell auf den Aspekt der Schrumpfungsprozesse fokussierende, rekonstruierende Analyse der Ergebnisse von ‚Stadt 2030‘, da diese bislang weder durch die Forschungsbegleitung noch durch andere Akteure der planungswissenschaftlichen Forschung vorgenommen wurde. Dabei wird einerseits untersucht, mit welchen Forschungsansätzen, methodischen Herangehensweisen und Fragestellungen sich der Forschungsverbund sowie die einzelnen Teilprojekte dem Thema der räumlichen Schrumpfungsprozesse genähert haben. In einem weiteren Schritt wird herausgearbeitet, welche planerischen, politischen und ggfs. auch zivilgesellschaftlichen Ansätze in den Projekten entstanden sind, um den Schrumpfungsprozessen zu begegnen. Andererseits wird auch analysiert, inwieweit das in den Projekten angewandte methodische Werkzeug und die Auswahl der einbezogenen Akteure geeignet waren, Ergebnisse zu erzielen, die den spezifischen Bedingungen in schrumpfenden Städten und Regionen Rechnung tragen. Auf einer anderen Untersuchungsebene geht es darum, zu analysieren, inwieweit die mit dem Forschungsverbund insgesamt und in den Teilprojekten erarbeiteten Ergebnisse für eine Implementierung in die langfristige Stadtentwicklungsplanung und -politik geeignet (bzw. überhaupt vorgesehen) sind und in welchem Maße eine solche Operationalisierung bislang erfolgt ist. Dabei steht einerseits die Frage im Vordergrund, welche Potenziale und Chancen mit der Erarbeitung und Umsetzung langfristiger Zukunftskonzepte für die Entwicklung schrumpfender Städte und Regionen verbunden sind, andererseits werden auch die Hemmnisse und Grenzen deutlich, die bei dem Versuch, Schrumpfungsprozesse langfristig zu steuern, berücksichtigt werden müssen. Die Ergebnisse der Dissertation fußen auf einer ausführlichen und detaillierten Analyse von vier Fallstudien, die in einem komplexen Auswahlverfahren aus der Gesamtheit der 21 Teilprojekte des Forschungsverbundes ausgewählt wurden. Es handelt sich dabei um die Teilprojekte in Eisenhüttenstadt (Brandenburg), in Guben / Gubin (Brandenburg / Polen), in der Region Braunschweig (Niedersachsen) und im Raum Schwalm-Eder-West (Hessen). Der Schwerpunkt der methodischen Herangehensweise lag auf der Durchführung und Auswertung von Experteninterviews mit den Projektbearbeitern der ausgewählten Fallstudien.

Anpassung und Entwicklung von Planungswerkzeugen für den sommerlichen Mindestwärmeschutz und zur Komfortbewertung des Sommerfalls

Im Rahmen der Dissertation erfolgt die rechnerische Bewertung des sommerlichen Wärmeverhaltens von Räumen ausgehend von den Festlegungen der DIN 4108-2:2003-07 zum sommerlichen Mindestwärmeschutz. Hierbei wird die Anwendung des sogenannten Sonneneintragskennwert-Verfahrens in einer weit angelegten Parameterstudie fallweise der Auswertung von korrespondierenden Simulationsrechnungen gegenübergestellt. Verbunden mit dem Ziel, die Anforderungen an den sommerlichen Mindestwärmeschutz für eine Neufassung der DIN 4108-2 zu überarbeiten und an aktuelle klimatische Verhältnisse anzupassen, gehen die Ergebnisse dieser Gegenüberstellung zum einen in die Entwicklung einer modifizierten Fassung des Sonneneintragskennwert-Verfahrens und zum anderen in die Formulierung einheitlicher Berechnungsrandbedingungen für den Fall der Nachweisführung durch Simulationsrechnungen ein. Aufbauend auf diesen Arbeiten zur Neuformulierung der Mindestanforderungen an den sommerlichen Wärmeschutz in DIN 4108-2, die im Rahmen des „Zukunft Bau“ Forschungsvorhabens „Ermittlung aktueller Randbedingungen für den sommerlichen Wärmeschutz und weiterer Gebäudeeigenschaften im Lichte des Klimawandels. Teil 2: Entwicklung eines Gesamtkonzepts für ein künftiges technisches Regelwerk zum Nachweis des sommerlichen Wärmeschutzes.“ erfolgt sind, werden weitergehende Untersuchungen angestellt, die sich im Wesentlichen mit dem sommerlichen Wärmeverhalten von Gebäuden im Kontext des weiter voranschreitenden Klimawandels beschäftigen. Die Untersuchungen hierzu sind eingebunden in das „Zukunft Bau“ Forschungsvorhaben „Thermisches und energetisches Verhalten von Gebäuden im Lichte des Klimawandels. Anforderungen und Lösungen für den Sonnenschutz.“ Im Rahmen der Bearbeitung dieses Forschungsvorhabens erfolgen neben der Bewertung des thermischen Verhaltens unter sich weiter verschärfenden klimatischen Randbedingungen Komfortbewertungen des Sommerfalls auf Basis der DIN EN 15251. Hierbei werden die durch DIN 4108-2:2013-02 formulierten Mindestanforderungen an den sommerlichen Wärmeschutz den Anforderungen zur Einhaltung der durch DIN EN 15251 definierten Komfortklassen gegenübergestellt und bewertet. Die Ergebnisse der Bearbeitung der genannten Forschungsvorhaben dienen schließlich als Grundlage für die Entwicklung eines erweiterten Kennwertverfahrens zur Komfort-bewertung des Sommerfalls auf Basis der DIN EN 15251.

Understanding Recreational Services of Urban Riverfront Space for Planning Purposes

In the process of urbanization, natural and semi-natural landscapes are increasingly cherished as open space and recreational resource. Urban rivers are part of this kind of resource and thus play an important role in managing urban resilience and health. Employing the example of Tianjin, this doctoral dissertation research aims at learning to understand how to plan and design for the interface zones between urban water courses and for the land areas adjacent to such water courses. This research also aims at learning how to link waterfront space with other urban space in order to make a recreational space system for the benefit of people. Five questions of this dissertation are: 1) what is the role of rivers in spatial and open space planning? 2) What are the human needs regarding outdoor open space? 3) How do river and water front spatial structures affect people's recreational activities? 4) How to define the recreational service of urban river and waterfront open space? 5) How might answering these question change planning and design of urban open space? Quantitative and qualitative empirical approaches were combined in this study for which literature review and theoretical explorations provide the basis. Empirical investigations were conducted in the city of Tianjin. The quantitative approach includes conducting 267 quantitative interviews, and the qualitative approach includes carrying out field observations and mappings. GIS served to support analysis and visualization of empirical information that was generated through this study. By responding to the five research questions, findings and lessons include the following: 1) In the course of time rivers have gained importance in all levels and scales of spatial planning and decision making. Regarding the development of ecological networks, mainly at national scale, rivers are considered significant linear elements. Regarding regional and comprehensive development, river basins and watersheds are often considered as the structural link for strategic ecological, economic, social and recreational planning. For purposes of urban planning, particularly regarding recreational services in cities, the distribution of urban open spaces often follows the structure of river systems. 2) For the purpose of classifying human recreational needs that relate to outdoor open space Maslow's hierarchy of human needs serves as theoretical basis. The classes include geographical, safety, physiological, social and aesthetic need. These classes serve as references while analyzing river and waterfront open space and other kinds of open space. 3) Regarding the question how river and waterfront spatial structures might affect people's recreational activities, eight different landscape units were identified and compared in the case study area. Considering the thermal conditions of Tianjin, one of these landscape units was identified as affording the optimal spatial arrangement which mostly meets recreational needs. The size and the shape of open space, and the plants present in an open space have been observed as being most relevant regarding recreational activities. 4) Regarding the recreational service of urban river and waterfront open space the results of this research suggest that the recreational service is felt less intensively as the distances between water 183 front and open space user’s places of residence are increasing. As a method for estimating this ‘Service Distance Effect’ the following formula may be used: Y = a*ebx. In this equation Y means the ‘Service Distance’ between homes and open space, and X means the percentage of the people who live within this service distance. Coefficient "a" represents the distance of the residential area nearest to the water front. The coefficient "b" is a comprehensive capability index that refers to the size of the available and suitable recreational area. 5) Answers found to the questions above have implications for the planning and design of urban open space. The results from the quantitative study of recreational services of waterfront open space were applied to the assessment of river-based open space systems. It is recommended that such assessments might be done employing the network analysis function available with any GIS. In addition, several practical planning and designing suggestions are made that would help remedy any insufficient base for satisfying recreational needs. The understanding of recreational need is considered helpful for the proposing planning and designing ideas and for the changing of urban landscapes. In the course of time Tianjin's urban water system has shrunk considerably. At the same time rivers and water courses have shaped Tianjin's urban structure in noticeable ways. In the process of urbanization water has become increasingly important to the citizens and their everyday recreations. Much needs to be changed in order to improve recreational opportunities and to better provide for a livable city, most importantly when considering the increasing number of old people. Suggestions made that are based on results of this study, might be implemented in Tianjin. They are 1) to promote the quality of the waterfront open space and to make all linear waterfront area accessible recreational spaces. Then, 2), it is advisable to advocate the concept of green streets and to combine green streets with river open space in order to form an everyday recreational network. And 3) any sound urban everyday recreational service made cannot rely on only urban rivers; the whole urban structure needs to be improved, including adding small open space and optimize the form of urban communities, finally producing a multi-functional urban recreational network.

Energieberatungsbericht zur Universitätsbibliothek Frankfurt

Im Rahmen des vom Hessischen Ministerium der Finanzen geförderten Forschungsprojektes „Bausteine für die CO2-Neutralität im Liegenschaftsbestand hessischer Hochschulen“ wird die neu entwickelte Teilenergiekennwertmethode, kurz TEK - an der Universitätsbibliothek Frankfurt in der Bockenheimer Warte 134-138, 60325 Frankfurt, angewandt. Das Gebäude von 1964 wird im Zuge eines Standortwechsels der Universität nur noch bis 2025 als Universitätsgebäude genutzt und danach an die Stadt Frankfurt übergeben. Der anschließende Erhalt wird derzeit noch diskutiert. Das gesamte Bauwerk gliedert sich in eine Bibliothek mit vorgelagertem Verwaltungsbau. Bisher wurden keine Sanierungsmaßnahmen durchgeführt. Die aus den Analysen gewonnenen Gebäude- und Anlagendaten dienen als Datengrundlage für eine Querschnittsanalyse zum Nichtwohngebäudebestand. Der folgende Kurzbericht umfasst: • Eine kurze Beschreibung des Projektes und des Gebäudes, • die Bewertung des Ist-Zustands des Gebäudes, • die Angabe von Modernisierungsmaßnahmen unter Nennung der Energieeinsparung, der Grobkosten und der sich hieraus ergebenden Wirtschaftlichkeit, • einen Anhang mit ausführlichen Informationen zur Gebäudeanalyse. Der Primärenergiebedarf des Objektes wurde mit 721 kWh/(m²a) unter Berücksichtigung der vorhandenen Nutzung als „hoch“ eingestuft. Um die Heizkosten senken zu können, sollte die energetische Qualität der Gebäudehülle verbessert werden. Dabei werden ein Austausch der Fassadenelemente und eine Dachsanierung empfohlen. Eine Leistungsanpassung der überdimensionierten Lüftungsanlagen und der Austausch einer RLT-Anlage sowie eine mögliche Abschaltung bzw. Sollwertreduzierung der Sprühbefeuchter sind weitere Energieeinsparmöglichkeiten. Eine Senkung des Stromverbrauchs kann durch den Einsatz moderner Beleuchtungstechnik mit Präsenzmeldern geschaffen werden. Zusätzliche im Bericht betrachtete Maßnahmen sind eine mögliche Nachtabschaltung, die effektive Deckung des hygienischen Außenluftbedarfs, die Erhöhung der Raumsollwerttemperatur im Kühlfall sowie der Kalibrierung des CO2-Sensors. Unter Berücksichtigung eines Nutzungszeitraums von 25 Jahren können ohne wesentliche Investitionskosten jährliche Gesamtkosten von 758.000 Euro reduziert werden.

Effects of changing water availability on land use in irrigated mountain oases of Al Jabal Al Akhdar, northern Oman

In Oman, during the last three decades, agricultural water use and groundwater extraction has dramatically increased to meet the needs of a rapidly growing population and major changes in lifestyle. This has triggered agricultural land-use changes which have been poorly investigated. In view of this our study aimed at analysing patterns of shortterm land-use changes (2007-2009) in the five irrigated mountain oases of Ash Sharayjah, Al’Ayn, Al’Aqr, Qasha’ and Masayrat ar Ruwajah situated in the northern Oman Hajar mountains of Al Jabal Al Akhdar where competitive uses of irrigation water are particularly apparent. Comprehensive GIS-based field surveys were conducted over three years to record changes in terrace use in these five oases where farmers have traditionally adapted to rain-derived variations of irrigation water supply, e.g. by leaving agricultural terraces of annual crops uncultivated in drought years. Results show that the area occupied with field crops decreased in the dry years of 2008 and 2009 for all oases. In Ash Sharayjah, terrace areas grown with field crops declined from 4.7 ha (32.4 % of total terrace area) in 2007 to 3.1 ha (21.6 %) in 2008 and 3.0 ha (20.5 %) in 2009. Similarly, the area proportion of field crops shrunk in Al’Ayn, Qasha’ and Masayrat from 35.2, 36.3 and 49.6 % in 2007 to 19.8, 8.5 and 41.3 % in 2009, respectively. In Al’Aqr, the area of field crops slightly increased from 0.3 ha (17.0 %) in 2007 to 0.7 (39.1 %) in 2008, and decreased to 0.5 ha (28.8 %) in 2009. During the same period annual dry matter yields of the cash crop garlic in Ash Sharayjah increased from 16.3 t ha-1 in 2007 to 19.8 t ha-1 in 2008 and 18.3 t ha-1 in 2009, while the same crop yielded only 0.4, 1.6 and 1.1 t ha-1 in Masayrat. In 2009, the total estimated agricultural area of the new town of Sayh Qatanah above the five oases was around 13.5 ha. Our results suggest that scarcity of irrigation water as a result of low precipitation and increased irrigation and home water consumption in the new urban settlements above the five oases have led to major shifts in the land-use pattern and increasingly threaten the centuries-long tradition and drought-resilience of agriculture in the oases of the studied watershed.