Genetic diversity of heat-labile toxin expressed by enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli strains isolated from humans

The natural diversity of the eft operons, encoding the heat-labile toxin LT-I (LT), carried by enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) strains isolated from humans was investigated. For many years, LT was supposed to be represented by a rather conserved toxin, and one derivative, produced by the reference H10407 strain, was intensively studied either as a virulence factor or as a vaccine adjuvant. Amplicons encompassing the two LT-encoding genes (eltA and eltB) of 51 human-derived ETEC strains, either LT+ (25 strains) only or LT+/ST+ (26 strains), isolated from asymptomatic (24 strains) or diarrheic (27 strains) subjects, were subjected to restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis and DNA sequencing. Seven polymorphic RFLP types of the H10407 strain were detected with six (BsaI, DdeI, HhaI, HincII, HphI, and MspI) restriction enzymes. Additionally, the single-nucleotide polymorphic analysis revealed 50 base changes in the eft operon, including 21 polymorphic sites at eltA and 9 at eltB. Based on the deduced amino acid sequences, 16 LT types were identified, including LT1, expressed by the H10407 strain and 23 other strains belonging to seven different serotypes, and LT2, expressed by 11 strains of six different serotypes. In vitro experiments carried out with purified toxins indicated that no significant differences in GM1-binding affinity could be detected among LT1, LT2, and LT4. However, LT4, but not other toxin types, showed reduced toxic activities measured either in vitro with cultured cells (Y-1 cells) or in vivo in rabbit ligated ileal loops. Collectively, these results indicate that the natural diversity of LTs produced by wild-type ETEC strains isolated from human hosts is considerably larger than previously assumed and may impact the pathogeneses of the strains and the epidemiology of the disease.

Influence of macro- and micronutrient fertilization on fungal contamination and fumonisin production in corn grains

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of nutrients (nitrogen, zinc and boron) on fungal growth and fumonisins production in corn samples obtained at the beginning of grain formation and at harvest. Three nitrogen doses were applied to the corn plants through soil in combination with three zinc doses and two boron doses during sowing. Mycological analysis of grains, using Dichloran Rose-Bengal Chloramphenicol Agar, collected at the beginning of formation demonstrated a fungal population predominantly of yeasts. Analysis of freshly harvested corn revealed a higher frequency of Penicillium spp. (72%) and F verticillioides (27%). High Performance Liquid Chromatography analysis revealed that 100% of grains were contaminated with fumonisins B, at levels ranging from 0.3 to 24.3 mg/kg and 93% contaminated with fumonisin B(2) at levels ranging from 0.05 to 5.42 mg/kg. Nitrogen (50 kg/ha) in combination with boron (0.5 kg/ha) resulted in an increased fumonisin B2 production. (c) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Combination Efficacy of Voriconazole and Amphotericin B in the Experimental Disease in Immunodeficient Mice Caused by Fluconazole-resistant Cryptococcus neoformans

The therapeutic efficacy of amphotericin B and voriconazole alone and in combination with one another were evaluated in immunodeficient mice (BALB/c-SCID) infected with a fluconazole-resistant strain of Cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii. The animals were infected intravenously with 3 x 10(5) cells and intraperitoneally treated with amphotericin B (1.5 mg/kg/day) in combination with voriconazole (40 mg/kg/days). Treatment began 1 day after inoculation and continued for 7 and 15 days post-inoculation. The treatments were evaluated by survival curves and yeast quantification (CFUs) in brain and lung tissues. Treatments for 15 days significantly promoted the survival of the animals compared to the control groups. Our results indicated that amphotericin B was effective in assuring longest-term survival of infected animals, but these animals still harbored the highest CFU of C. neoformans in lungs and brain at the end of the experiment. Voriconazole was not as effective alone, but in combination with amphotericin B, it prolonged survival for the second-longest time period and provided the lowest colonization of target organs by the fungus. None of the treatments were effective in complete eradication of the fungus in mice lungs and brain at the end of the experiment.

Influence of organic fertilization on the number of culturable diazotrophic endophytic bacteria isolated from sugarcane

The numbers of culturable diazotrophic endophytic bacteria (CDEB) from roots stems and leaves of sugarcane submitted to organic inorganic or no fertilization were compared In order to determine the size of the N(2) fixing populations the Most Probable Number technique (MPN) was used The quantification of diazotrophic bacteria by using the acetylene reduction assay (ARA) was more accurate than observing the bacterial growth in the vials to confirm N(2) fixing capability the detection of gene nifH was performed on a sample of 105 Isolated bacteria The production of extracellular enzymes involved in the penetration of the plants by the bacteria was also studied The results showed that organic fertilization enhances the number of CDEB when compared with conventional fertilization used throughout the growing season The maximum number of bacteria was detected in the roots Roots and stems presented the greatest number of CDEB in the middle of the cropping season and in leaves numbers varied according to the treatment Using two pairs of primers and two different methods the nifH gene was found in 104 of the 105 tested isolates Larger amounts of pectinase were released by isolates from sugarcane treated with conventional fertilizers (66%) whereas larger amounts of cellulase were released by strains isolated from sugarcane treated with organic fertilizers (80%) (C) 2010 Elsevier Masson SAS All rights reserved

Immune response to cytolethal distending toxin of Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans in periodontitis patients

Background and Objective: Cytolethal distending toxin (CDT) is a genotoxin produced by Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans. In spite of its association with pathogenesis, little is known about the humoral immune response against the CDT. This study aimed to test whether subgingival colonization and humoral response to A. actinomycetemcomitans would lead to a response against CDT. Material and Methods: Sera from periodontally healthy, localized and generalized aggressive periodontitis and chronic periodontitis subjects (n = 80) were assessed for immunoglobulin G titers to A. actinomycetemcomitans serotypes a/b/c and to each CDT subunit (CdtA, CdtB and CdtC) by ELISA. A. actinomycetemcomitans subgingival levels and neutralization of CDT activity were also analyzed. Results: Sera from 75.0% localized and 81.8% generalized aggressive periodontitis patients reacted to A. actinomycetemcomitans. A response to serotype b was detected in localized (66.7%) and generalized aggressive periodontitis (54.5%). Reactivity to A. actinomycetemcomitans correlated with subgingival colonization (R = 0.75, p < 0.05). There was no correlation between A. actinomycetemcomitans colonization or response to serotypes and the immunoglobulin G response to CDT subunits. Titers of immunoglobulin G to CdtA and CdtB did not differ among groups; however, sera of all generalized aggressive periodontitis patients reacted to CdtC. Neutralization of CDT was not correlated with levels of antibodies to CDT subunits. Conclusion: Response to CdtA and CdtB did not correlate with the periodontal status of the subject in the context of an A. actinomycetemcomitans infection. However, a response to CdtC was found in sera of generalized but not of localized aggressive periodontitis subjects. Differences in response to CdtC between generalized and localized aggressive periodontitis subjects indicate that CDT could be expressed differently by the infecting strains. Alternatively, the antibody response to CdtC could require the colonization of multiple sites.

Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium Vaccine Strains Expressing a Nontoxic Shiga-Like Toxin 2 Derivative Induce Partial Protective Immunity to the Toxin Expressed by Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli

Shiga-like toxin 2 (Stx2)-producing enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (referred to as EHEC or STEC) strains are the primary etiologic agents of hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS), which leads to renal failure and high mortality rates. Expression of Stx2 is the most relevant virulence-associated factor of EHEC strains, and toxin neutralization by antigen-specific serum antibodies represents the main target for both preventive and therapeutic anti-HUS approaches. In the present report, we describe two Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium aroA vaccine strains expressing a nontoxic plasmid-encoded derivative of Stx2 (Stx2 Delta AB) containing the complete nontoxic A2 subunit and the receptor binding B subunit. The two S. Typhimurium strains differ in the expression of flagellin, the structural subunit of the flagellar shaft, which exerts strong adjuvant effects. The vaccine strains expressed Stx2 Delta AB, either cell bound or secreted into the extracellular environment, and showed enhanced mouse gut colonization and high plasmid stability under both in vitro and in vivo conditions. Oral immunization of mice with three doses of the S. Typhimurium vaccine strains elicited serum anti-Stx2B (IgG) antibodies that neutralized the toxic effects of the native toxin under in vitro conditions (Vero cells) and conferred partial protection under in vivo conditions. No significant differences with respect to gut colonization or the induction of antigen-specific antibody responses were detected in mice vaccinated with flagellated versus nonflagellated bacterial strains. The present results indicate that expression of Stx2 Delta AB by attenuated S. Typhimurium strains is an alternative vaccine approach for HUS control, but additional improvements in the immunogenicity of Stx2 toxoids are still required.

Balanoposthitis caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa co-producing metallo-beta-lactamase and 16S rRNA methylase in children with hematological malignancies

Balanoposthitis is defined as the inflammation of the glans penis and its foreskin. In the presence of other underlying medical conditions, this localized infection may spread systemically, serving as a source of fever and bacteremia in neutropenic males. Two rare cases of balanoposthitis caused by a clonally related Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolate co-producing the SPM-1 metallo-beta-lactamase and the novel 16S rRNA methylase RmtD are described. Four multidrug-resistant (MDR) P. aeruginosa isolates were successively recovered from glans/foreskin swabs and urine cultures from two uncircumcised pediatric patients, one with Burkitt`s non-Hodgkin`s lymphoma and one with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Clinically, preputial colonization by MDR P. aeruginosa evolved to severe balanoposthitis with glans/foreskin lesions as a source of fever. Combination therapy of ciprofloxacin and/or aztreonam (systemic) plus polymyxin B (topical) was effective once reversion of the neutropenic condition was achieved. Although P. aeruginosa remains an unusual cause of balanoposthitis, these cases should alert the physician to the potential pathogenicity of this bacterium. Furthermore, co-production of metallo-beta-lactamase and 16S rRNA methylase has a potential impact on the empirical management of complicated infections caused by P. aeruginosa. Crown Copyright (C) 2009 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of International Society for Infectious Diseases. All rights reserved.

Plasmodium falciparum Accompanied the Human Expansion out of Africa

Plasmodium falciparum is distributed throughout the tropics and is responsible for an estimated 230 million cases of malaria every year, with a further 1.4 billion people at risk of infection [1-3]. Little is known about the genetic makeup of P. falciparum populations, despite variation in genetic diversity being a key factor in morbidity, mortality, and the success of malaria control initiatives. Here we analyze a worldwide sample of 519 P. falciparum isolates sequenced for two housekeeping genes (63 single nucleotide polymorphisms from around 5000 nucleotides per isolate). We observe a strong negative correlation between within-population genetic diversity and geographic distance from sub-Saharan Africa (R(2) = 0.95) over Africa, Asia, and Oceania. In contrast, regional variation in transmission intensity seems to have had a negligible impact on the distribution of genetic diversity. The striking geographic patterns of isolation by distance observed in P. falciparum mirror the ones previously documented in humans [4-7] and point to a joint sub-Saharan African origin between the parasite and its host. Age estimates for the expansion of P. falciparum further support that anatomically modern humans were infected prior to their exit out of Africa and carried the parasite along during their colonization of the world.

Malaria on the Amazonian frontier: Transmission dynamics, risk factors, spatial distribution, and prospects for control

Little follow-up data on malaria transmission in communities originating from frontier settlements in Amazonia are available. Here we describe a cohort study in a frontier settlement in Acre, Brazil, where 509 subjects contributed 489.7 person-years of follow-up. The association between malaria morbidity during the follow-up and individual, household, and spatial covariates was explored with mixed-effects logistic regression models and spatial analysis. Incidence rates for Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum malaria were 30.0/100 and 16.3/100 person-years at risk, respectively. Malaria morbidity was strongly associated with land clearing and farming, and decreased after five years of residence in the area, suggesting that clinical immunity develops among subjects exposed to low malaria endemicity. Significant spatial clustering of malaria was observed in the areas of most recent occupation, indicating that the continuous influx of nonimmune settlers to forest-fringe areas perpetuates the cycle of environmental change and colonization that favors malaria transmission in rural Amazonia.

Detection of Mycoplasma pulmonis in laboratory rats and technicians

Five species of mycoplasma are associated with several rat diseases. Mycoplasma pulmonis is the most important and most studied, possibly causing disease in rats and undermining the validity of laboratory experiments. M. pulmonis was isolated in 144/240 laboratory rats and identified by PCR in 155/240. This species was also detected in 12 human individuals (technicians of a laboratory animal house hold) in contact with these rats. The results were confirmed by sequencing of DNA products. Mycoplasma species are host specific; however, M. pulmonis was identified in humans, suggesting a case of unspecific colonization. Statistical analysis shows a greater risk for M. pulmonis colonizing individuals who are exposed to infected rats in animal facilities than individuals who do not. The detection of M. pulmonis in humans indicates a new status for this mollicute mycoplasmas in animal-holding facilities.

Effects of the antimicrobial peptide gomesin on the global gene expression profile, virulence and biofilm formation of Xylella fastidiosa

In the xylem vessels of susceptible hosts, such as citrus trees, Xylella fastidiosa forms biofilm-like colonies that can block water transport, which appears to correlate to disease symptoms. Besides aiding host colonization, bacterial biofilms play an important role in resistance against antimicrobial agents, for instance antimicrobial peptides (AMPs). Here, we show that gomesin, a potent AMP from a tarantula spider, modulates X. fastidiosa gene expression profile upon 60 min of treatment with a sublethal concentration. DNA microarray hybridizations revealed that among the upregulated coding sequences, some are related to biofilm production. In addition, we show that the biofilm formed by gomesin-treated bacteria is thicker than that formed by nontreated cells or cells exposed to streptomycin. We have also observed that the treatment of X. fastidiosa with a sublethal concentration of gomesin before inoculation in tobacco plants correlates with a reduction in foliar symptoms, an effect possibly due to the trapping of bacterial cells to fewer xylem vessels, given the enhancement in biofilm production. These results warrant further investigation of how X. fastidiosa would respond to the AMPs produced by citrus endophytes and by the insect vector, leading to a better understanding of the mechanism of action of these molecules on bacterial virulence.

Nasal immunization of mice with Lactobacillus casei expressing the Pneumococcal Surface Protein A: induction of antibodies, complement deposition and partial protection against Streptococcus pneumoniae challenge

Strategies for the development of new vaccines against Streptococcus pneumoniae infections try to overcome problems such as serotype coverage and high costs, present in currently available vaccines. Formulations based on protein candidates that can induce protection in animal models have been pointed as good alternatives. Among them, the Pneumococcal Surface Protein A (PspA) plays an important role during systemic infection at least in part through the inhibition of complement deposition on the pneumococcal surface, a mechanism of evasion from the immune system. Antigen delivery systems based on live recombinant lactic acid bacteria (LAB) represents a promising strategy for mucosal vaccination, since they are generally regarded as safe bacteria able to elicit both systemic and mucosal immune responses. In this work, the N-terminal region of clade I PspA was constitutively expressed in Lactobacillus casei and the recombinant bacteria was tested as a mucosal vaccine in mice. Nasal immunization with L. casei-PspA 1 induced anti-PspA antibodies that were able to bind to pneumococcal strains carrying both clade 1 and clade 2 PspAs and to induce complement deposition on the surface of the bacteria. In addition, an increase in survival of immunized mice after a systemic challenge with a virulent pneumococcal strain was observed. (C) 2008 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

Identification of an Operon, Pil-Chp, That Controls Twitching Motility and Virulence in Xylella fastidiosa

Xylella fastidiosa is an important phytopathogenic bacterium that causes many serious plant diseases, including Pierce`s disease of grapevines. Disease manifestation by X. fastidiosa is associated with the expression of several factors, including the type IV pili that are required for twitching motility. We provide evidence that an operon, named Pil-Chp, with genes homologous to those found in chemotaxis systems, regulates twitching motility. Transposon insertion into the pilL gene of the operon resulted in loss of twitching motility (pilL is homologous to cheA genes encoding kinases). The X. fastidiosa mutant maintained the type IV pili, indicating that the disrupted pilL or downstream operon genes are involved in pili function, and not biogenesis. The mutated X. fastidiosa produced less biofilm than wild-type cells, indicating that the operon contributes to biofilm formation. Finally, in planta the mutant produced delayed and less severe disease, indicating that the Pil-Chp operon contributes to the virulence of X. fastidiosa, presumably through its role in twitching motility.

Surfactin reduces the adhesion of food-borne pathogenic bacteria to solid surfaces

Aims: To investigate the effect of the biosurfactants surfactin and rhamnolipids on the adhesion of the food pathogens Listeria monocytogenes, Enterobacter sakazakii and Salmonella Enteritidis to stainless steel and polypropylene surfaces. Methods and Results: Quantification of bacterial adhesion was performed using the crystal violet staining technique. Preconditioning of surfaces with surfactin caused a reduction on the number of adhered cells of Ent. sakazakii and L. monocytogenes on stainless steel. The most significant result was obtained with L. monocytogenes where number of adhered cells was reduced by 10(2) CFU cm(-2). On polypropylene, surfactin showed a significant decrease on the adhesion of all strains. The adsorption of surfactin on polystyrene also reduces the adhesion of L. monocytogenes and Salm. Enteritidis growing cells. For short contact periods using nongrowing cells or longer contact periods with growing cells, surfactin was able to delay bacterial adhesion. Conclusions: The prior adsorption of surfactin to solid surfaces contributes on reducing colonization of the pathogenic bacteria. Significance and Impact of the Study: This is the first work investigating the effect of surfactin on the adhesion of the food pathogens L. monocytogenes, Ent. sakazakii and Salm. Enteritidis to polypropylene and stainless steel surfaces.

Fjärrvärmedrivna vitvaror : Erfarenheter från utveckling, installationer och kostnadsberäkningar

Värmedrivna vitvaror eller HWC-maskiner som de kallas av tillverkaren värms med varmt vatten från en cirkulerande krets via en värmeväxlare inbyggd i maskinen, till skillnad från konventionella maskiner som värms med el. Denna teknik skall inte förväxlas med maskiner som är anslutna till varmvattenledningen och fylls på med varmt vatten och som därmed begränsas till disk- och tvätt. Syftet med fjärrvärmedrivna vitvaror är alltså att använda fjärrvärme, som har lägre kvalitet och pris än elenergi för uppvärmning och torkning och på så sätt spara el och utöka fjärrvärmeunderlaget. En jämförelse av koldioxidutsläpp och primärenergianvändning mellan konventionella vitvaror och fjärrvärmedrivna vitvaror visar att både koldioxidutsläpp och primärenergianvändning blir lägre för fjärrvärmedrivna vitvaror om biobränsle anses koldioxidneutralt och den el som ersätts är producerad i kolkraftverk eller gaskombikraftverk.   Denna rapport beskriver utveckling och kommersialisering av värmedrivna vitvaror (disk- och tvättmaskiner samt torktumlare och torkskåp) och hur de kan anslutas mot fjärrvärmesystem i olika systemlösningar. Dessutom har de energimässiga och ekonomiska förutsättningarna för tekniken undersökts. Erfarenheterna från fältprovning är dock mycket begränsade, eftersom de byggen där fälttesterna skulle ske försenades. Under 2013 färdigställs ett flerbostadshus med värmedrivna vitvaror i 160 lägenheter i Västerås.   De utvecklade maskinernas värmeanvändning som andel av total energianvändning vid 60 graders framledningstemperatur har uppmätts till ca 50 % för diskmaskinen, 67 % för tvättmaskinen, 80 % för torktumlaren och 93 % för torkskåpet. I det studerade flerbostadshuset av passivhusstandard uppgår lasten från värmedrivna vitvaror komfortgolvvärme och handdukstorkar till upp mot 30 % av husets totala värmeanvändning. För småhus är motsvarande siffra upp mot 20 %. Att använda fjärrvärme istället för elvärme till dessa installationer som normalt är elvärmda kan allts minska elbehovet betydligt i lågenergibebyggelse vilket också minskar både koldioxidutsläppen och primärenergianvändningen.   Ekonomiska analyser har genomförts för två olika systemkoncept (separat vitvarukrets och Västeråsmodellen) för nybyggda småhusområden och flerfamiljshus där fjärrvärme inte bara används till vitvaror utan också till handdukstorkar och komfortgolvvärme. De ekonomiska analyserna visar att Västeråsmodellen är den mest ekonomiskt intressanta systemlösningen med värmedrivna vitvaror, handdukstork och komfortgolvvärme. I flerfamiljshus kan den vara konkurrenskraftig mot de elvärmda alternativen (konventionellt system med eldrivna vitvaror, komfortgolvvärme och handdukstorkar) om prisskillnaden mellan el och fjärrvärme är större än 0,7 kr/kWh. En parameterstudie visar att kapitalkostnaden blir ganska hög jämfört med energikostnaden, vilket betyder att lång livslängd och många cykler är viktigt för att förbättra de ekonomiska förutsättningarna för värmedrivna vitvaror. För passiva småhus blir kostnaden för Västeråsmodellen med värmedrivna vitvaror, handdukstork och komfortgolvvärme likvärdig med de elvärmda alternativen vid energiprisskillnader på 0,7 kr/kWh inklusive moms, medan det krävs prisskillnader på 0,9 kr/kWh inklusive moms för normalisolerade småhusområden.   Sammanfattningsvis kan sägas att i kommuner med ett konkurrenskraftigt fjärrvärmepris finns det viss lönsamhet för hela konceptet enligt Västeråsmodellen med värmedrivna vitvaror, komfortgolvvärme, och handdukstorkar. Om man däremot ser på konkurrensen för enskilda vitvaror är det främst torktumlaren som är konkurrenskraftig i bostäder. Målpriset på 1000 kr extra för värmedrift har inte kunnat uppnås inom projektet för diskmaskiner och tvättmaskiner. Det krävs lägre priser och låga anslutningskostnader för att räkna hem diskmaskinen och tvättmaskinen som enskilda komponenter.   Värmedrivna tvättmaskiner och torktumlare är konkurrenskraftiga i flerfamiljstvättstugor. Speciellt i de fall där beläggningen är god och flera maskiner delar på anslutningskostnaden till fjärrvärmecentralen kan värmedrift bli riktigt lönsam. Torkskåpens konkurrenskraft har inte kunnat utvärderas, då priset ännu inte fastställts. Att använda VVC-systemet för värmedistribution till värmedrivna vitvaror kan vara mycket intressant, men det kräver att legionellaproblematiken kan lösas. I nuläget finns ingen lösning som uppfyller formuleringarna i boverkets byggregler. Ett annat distributionssätt som kan vara intressant, men som inte undersökts i studien är att använda VVC för varmvattendistribution och en gemensam radiator- och vitvarukrets med konstant framledningstemperatur. Den aktör som förväntas ha störst ekonomiskt intresse av att tekniken implementeras är sannolikt fjärrvärmebolagen som får sälja mer värme och det ligger därmed främst på deras ansvar att marknadsföra tekniken i mötet med sina kunder.