Assimilation of endmember variability in spectral for urban land cover extraction mixture analysis

Variable Endmember Constrained Least Square (VECLS) technique is proposed to account endmember variability in the linear mixture model by incorporating the variance for each class, the signals of which varies from pixel to pixel due to change in urban land cover (LC) structures. VECLS is first tested with a computer simulated three class endmember considering four bands having small, medium and large variability with three different spatial resolutions. The technique is next validated with real datasets of IKONOS, Landsat ETM+ and MODIS. The results show that correlation between actual and estimated proportion is higher by an average of 0.25 for the artificial datasets compared to a situation where variability is not considered. With IKONOS, Landsat ETM+ and MODIS data, the average correlation increased by 0.15 for 2 and 3 classes and by 0.19 for 4 classes, when compared to single endmember per class. (C) 2013 COSPAR. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

How much land-based greenhouse gas mitigation can be achieved without compromising food security and environmental goals?

Feeding 9-10billion people by 2050 and preventing dangerous climate change are two of the greatest challenges facing humanity. Both challenges must be met while reducing the impact of land management on ecosystem services that deliver vital goods and services, and support human health and well-being. Few studies to date have considered the interactions between these challenges. In this study we briefly outline the challenges, review the supply- and demand-side climate mitigation potential available in the Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use AFOLU sector and options for delivering food security. We briefly outline some of the synergies and trade-offs afforded by mitigation practices, before presenting an assessment of the mitigation potential possible in the AFOLU sector under possible future scenarios in which demand-side measures codeliver to aid food security. We conclude that while supply-side mitigation measures, such as changes in land management, might either enhance or negatively impact food security, demand-side mitigation measures, such as reduced waste or demand for livestock products, should benefit both food security and greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation. Demand-side measures offer a greater potential (1.5-15.6Gt CO2-eq. yr(-1)) in meeting both challenges than do supply-side measures (1.5-4.3Gt CO2-eq. yr(-1) at carbon prices between 20 and 100US$ tCO(2)-eq. yr(-1)), but given the enormity of challenges, all options need to be considered. Supply-side measures should be implemented immediately, focussing on those that allow the production of more agricultural product per unit of input. For demand-side measures, given the difficulties in their implementation and lag in their effectiveness, policy should be introduced quickly, and should aim to codeliver to other policy agenda, such as improving environmental quality or improving dietary health. These problems facing humanity in the 21st Century are extremely challenging, and policy that addresses multiple objectives is required now more than ever.

Co-evolution of specific amino acid in sigma 1.2 region and nucleotide base in the discriminator to act as sensors of small molecule effectors of transcription initiation in mycobacteria

The transcription from rrn and a number of other promoters is regulated by initiating ribonucleotides (iNTPs) and guanosine tetra/penta phosphate (p)ppGpp], either by strengthening or by weakening of the RNA polymerase (RNAP)-promoter interactions during initiation. Studies in Escherichia coli revealed the importance of a sequence termed discriminator, located between -10 and the transcription start site of the responsive promoters in this mode of regulation. Instability of the open complex at these promoters is attributed to the lack of stabilizing interactions between the suboptimal discriminator and the 1.2 region of sigma 70 (Sig70) in RNAP holoenzyme. We demonstrate a different pattern of interaction between the promoters and sigma A (SigA) of Mycobacterium tuberculosis to execute similar regulation. Instead of cytosine and methionine, thymine at three nucleotides downstream to -10 element and leucine 232 in SigA are found to be essential for iNTPs and pppGpp mediated response at the rrn and gyr promoters of the organism. The specificity of the interaction is substantiated by mutational replacements, either in the discriminator or in SigA, which abolish the nucleotide mediated regulation in vitro or in vivo. Specific yet distinct bases and the amino acids appear to have co-evolved' to retain the discriminator-sigma 1.2 region regulatory switch operated by iNTPs/pppGpp during the transcription initiation in different bacteria.

A simple model for spatial disaggregation of evaporative fraction: Comparative study with thermal sharpened land surface temperature data over India

[1] Evaporative fraction (EF) is a measure of the amount of available energy at the earth surface that is partitioned into latent heat flux. The currently operational thermal sensors like the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on satellite platforms provide data only at 1000 m, which constraints the spatial resolution of EF estimates. A simple model (disaggregation of evaporative fraction (DEFrac)) based on the observed relationship between EF and the normalized difference vegetation index is proposed to spatially disaggregate EF. The DEFrac model was tested with EF estimated from the triangle method using 113 clear sky data sets from the MODIS sensor aboard Terra and Aqua satellites. Validation was done using the data at four micrometeorological tower sites across varied agro-climatic zones possessing different land cover conditions in India using Bowen ratio energy balance method. The root-mean-square error (RMSE) of EF estimated at 1000 m resolution using the triangle method was 0.09 for all the four sites put together. The RMSE of DEFrac disaggregated EF was 0.09 for 250 m resolution. Two models of input disaggregation were also tried with thermal data sharpened using two thermal sharpening models DisTrad and TsHARP. The RMSE of disaggregated EF was 0.14 for both the input disaggregation models for 250 m resolution. Moreover, spatial analysis of disaggregation was performed using Landsat-7 (Enhanced Thematic Mapper) ETM+ data over four grids in India for contrasted seasons. It was observed that the DEFrac model performed better than the input disaggregation models under cropped conditions while they were marginally similar under non-cropped conditions.

SPATIO-TEMPORAL DYNAMICS ALONG THE TERRAIN GRADIENT OF DIVERSE LANDSCAPE

Land use (LU) land cover (LC) information at a temporal scale illustrates the physical coverage of the Earth's terrestrial surface according to its use and provides the intricate information for effective planning and management activities. LULC changes are stated as local and location specific, collectively they act as drivers of global environmental changes. Understanding and predicting the impact of LULC change processes requires long term historical restorations and projecting into the future of land cover changes at regional to global scales. The present study aims at quantifying spatio temporal landscape dynamics along the gradient of varying terrains presented in the landscape by multi-data approach (MDA). MDA incorporates multi temporal satellite imagery with demographic data and other additional relevant data sets. The gradient covers three different types of topographic features, planes; hilly terrain and coastal region to account the significant role of elevation in land cover change. The seasonality is another aspect to be considered in the vegetation dominated landscapes; variations are accounted using multi seasonal data. Spatial patterns of the various patches are identified and analysed using landscape metrics to understand the forest fragmentation. The prediction of likely changes in 2020 through scenario analysis has been done to account for the changes, considering the present growth rates and due to the proposed developmental projects. This work summarizes recent estimates on changes in cropland, agricultural intensification, deforestation, pasture expansion, and urbanization as the causal factors for LULC change.

Co-benefits, trade-offs, barriers and policies for greenhouse gas mitigation in the agriculture, forestry and other land use (AFOLU) sector

The agriculture, forestry and other land use (AFOLU) sector is responsible for approximately 25% of anthropogenic GHG emissions mainly from deforestation and agricultural emissions from livestock, soil and nutrient management. Mitigation from the sector is thus extremely important in meeting emission reduction targets. The sector offers a variety of cost-competitive mitigation options with most analyses indicating a decline in emissions largely due to decreasing deforestation rates. Sustainability criteria are needed to guide development and implementation of AFOLU mitigation measures with particular focus on multifunctional systems that allow the delivery of multiple services from land. It is striking that almost all of the positive and negative impacts, opportunities and barriers are context specific, precluding generic statements about which AFOLU mitigation measures have the greatest promise at a global scale. This finding underlines the importance of considering each mitigation strategy on a case-by-case basis, systemic effects when implementing mitigation options on the national scale, and suggests that policies need to be flexible enough to allow such assessments. National and international agricultural and forest (climate) policies have the potential to alter the opportunity costs of specific land uses in ways that increase opportunities or barriers for attaining climate change mitigation goals. Policies governing practices in agriculture and in forest conservation and management need to account for both effective mitigation and adaptation and can help to orient practices in agriculture and in forestry towards global sharing of innovative technologies for the efficient use of land resources. Different policy instruments, especially economic incentives and regulatory approaches, are currently being applied however, for its successful implementation it is critical to understand how land-use decisions are made and how new social, political and economic forces in the future will influence this process.

Contrasting geochemical signatures on land from the Middle and Late Permian extinction events

The end of the Palaeozoic is marked by two mass-extinction events during the Middle Permian (Capitanian) and the Late Permian (Changhsingian). Given similarities between the two events in geochemical signatures, such as large magnitude negative C-13 anomalies, sedimentological signatures such as claystone breccias, and the approximate contemporaneous emplacement of large igneous provinces, many authors have sought a common causal mechanism. Here, a new high-resolution continental record of the Capitanian event from Portal Mountain, Antarctica, is compared with previously published Changhsingian records of geochemical signatures of weathering intensity and palaeoclimatic change. Geochemical means of discriminating sedimentary provenance (Ti/Al, U/Th and La/Ce ratios) all indicate a common provenance for the Portal Mountain sediments and associated palaeosols, so changes spanning the Capitanian extinction represent changes in weathering intensity rather than sediment source. Proxies for weathering intensity chemical index of alteration, W and rare earth element accumulation all decline across the Capitanian extinction event at Portal Mountain, which is in contrast to the increased weathering recorded globally at the Late Permian extinction. Furthermore, palaeoclimatic proxies are consistent with unchanging or cooler climatic conditions throughout the Capitanian event, which contrasts with Changhsingian records that all indicate a significant syn-extinction and post-extinction series of greenhouse warming events. Although both the Capitanian and Changhsingian event records indicate significant redox shifts, palaeosol geochemistry of the Changhsingian event indicates more reducing conditions, whereas the new Capitanian record of reduced trace metal abundances (Cr, Cu, Ni and Ce) indicates more oxidizing conditions. Taken together, the differences in weathering intensity, redox and the lack of evidence for significant climatic change in the new record suggest that the Capitanian mass extinction was not triggered by dyke injection of coal-beds, as in the Changhsingian extinction, and may instead have been triggered directly by the Emeishan large igneous province or by the interaction of Emeishan basalts with platform carbonates.

Assessment of land surface temperature and heat fluxes over Delhi using remote sensing data

Surface energy processes has an essential role in urban weather, climate and hydrosphere cycles, as well in urban heat redistribution. The research was undertaken to analyze the potential of Landsat and MODIS data in retrieving biophysical parameters in estimating land surface temperature & heat fluxes diurnally in summer and winter seasons of years 2000 and 2010 and understanding its effect on anthropogenic heat disturbance over Delhi and surrounding region. Results show that during years 2000-2010, settlement and industrial area increased from 5.66 to 11.74% and 4.92 to 11.87% respectively which in turn has direct effect on land surface temperature (LST) and heat fluxes including anthropogenic heat flux. Based on the energy balance model for land surface, a method to estimate the increase in anthropogenic heat flux (Has) has been proposed. The settlement and industrial areas has higher amounts of energy consumed and has high values of Has in all seasons. The comparison of satellite derived LST with that of field measured values show that Landsat estimated values are in close agreement within error of 2 degrees C than MODIS with an error of 3 degrees C. It was observed that, during 2000 and 2010, the average change in surface temperature using Landsat over settlement & industrial areas of both seasons is 1.4 degrees C & for MODIS data is 3.7 degrees C. The seasonal average change in anthropogenic heat flux (Has) estimated using Landsat & MODIS is up by around 38 W/m(2) and 62 W/m(2) respectively while higher change is observed over settlement and concrete structures. The study reveals that the dynamic range of Has values has increased in the 10 year period due to the strong anthropogenic influence over the area. The study showed that anthropogenic heat flux is an indicator of the strength of urban heat island effect, and can be used to quantify the magnitude of the urban heat island effect. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Prediction of Land Surface Temperature under Cloudy Conditions using Microwave Remote Sensing and ANN

Land surface temperature (LST) is an important variable in climate, hydrologic, ecological, biophysical and biochemical studies (Mildrexler et al., 2011). The most effective way to obtain LST measurements is through satellites. Presently, LST from moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) sensor is applied in various fields due to its high spatial and temporal availability over the globe, but quite difficult to provide observations in cloudy conditions. This study evolves of prediction of LST under clear and cloudy conditions using microwave vegetation indices (MVIs), elevation, latitude, longitude and Julian day as inputs employing an artificial neural network (ANN) model. MVIs can be obtained even under cloudy condition, since microwave radiation has an ability to penetrate through clouds. In this study LST and MVIs data of the year 2010 for the Cauvery basin on a daily basis were obtained from MODIS and advanced microwave scanning radiometer (AMSR-E) sensors of aqua satellite respectively. Separate ANN models were trained and tested for the grid cells for which both LST and MVI were available. The performance of the models was evaluated based on standard evaluation measures. The best performing model was used to predict LST where MVIs were available. Results revealed that predictions of LST using ANN are in good agreement with the observed values. The ANN approach presented in this study promises to be useful for predicting LST using satellite observations even in cloudy conditions. (C) 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Modelling the influence of land-use changes on biophysical and biochemical interactions at regional and global scales

Land-use changes since the start of the industrial era account for nearly one-third of the cumulative anthropogenic CO2 emissions. In addition to the greenhouse effect of CO2 emissions, changes in land use also affect climate via changes in surface physical properties such as albedo, evapotranspiration and roughness length. Recent modelling studies suggest that these biophysical components may be comparable with biochemical effects. In regard to climate change, the effects of these two distinct processes may counterbalance one another both regionally and, possibly, globally. In this article, through hypothetical large-scale deforestation simulations using a global climate model, we contrast the implications of afforestation on ameliorating or enhancing anthropogenic contributions from previously converted (agricultural) land surfaces. Based on our review of past studies on this subject, we conclude that the sum of both biophysical and biochemical effects should be assessed when large-scale afforestation is used for countering global warming, and the net effect on global mean temperature change depends on the location of deforestation/afforestation. Further, although biochemical effects trigger global climate change, biophysical effects often cause strong local and regional climate change. The implication of the biophysical effects for adaptation and mitigation of climate change in agriculture and agroforestry sectors is discussed. center dot Land-use changes affect global and regional climates through both biochemical and biophysical process. center dot Climate effect from biophysical process depends on the location of land-use change. center dot Climate mitigation strategies such as afforestation/reforestation should consider the net effect of biochemical and biophysical processes for effective mitigation. center dot Climate-smart agriculture could use bio-geoengineering techniques that consider plant biophysical characteristics such as reflectivity and water use efficiency.

Isolating the impacts of land use and climate change on streamflow

Quantifying the isolated and integrated impacts of land use (LU) and climate change on streamflow is challenging as well as crucial to optimally manage water resources in river basins. This paper presents a simple hydrologic modeling-based approach to segregate the impacts of land use and climate change on the streamflow of a river basin. The upper Ganga basin (UGB) in India is selected as the case study to carry out the analysis. Streamflow in the river basin is modeled using a calibrated variable infiltration capacity (VIC) hydrologic model. The approach involves development of three scenarios to understand the influence of land use and climate on streamflow. The first scenario assesses the sensitivity of streamflow to land use changes under invariant climate. The second scenario determines the change in streamflow due to change in climate assuming constant land use. The third scenario estimates the combined effect of changing land use and climate over the streamflow of the basin. Based on the results obtained from the three scenarios, quantification of isolated impacts of land use and climate change on streamflow is addressed. Future projections of climate are obtained from dynamically downscaled simulations of six general circulation models (GCMs) available from the Coordinated Regional Downscaling Experiment (CORDEX) project. Uncertainties associated with the GCMs and emission scenarios are quantified in the analysis. Results for the case study indicate that streamflow is highly sensitive to change in urban areas and moderately sensitive to change in cropland areas. However, variations in streamflow generally reproduce the variations in precipitation. The combined effect of land use and climate on streamflow is observed to be more pronounced compared to their individual impacts in the basin. It is observed from the isolated effects of land use and climate change that climate has a more dominant impact on streamflow in the region. The approach proposed in this paper is applicable to any river basin to isolate the impacts of land use change and climate change on the streamflow.

Induccion del celo en vacas en anestro post parto mediante la administracion de sales minerales, vitaminas y masajes ovaricos. Realizada en el municipio de Rio Blanco, departamento de Matagalpa

El presente estudio se realizó con el objetivo de establecer la efectividad del tratamiento de Inducción al celo de vacas en anestro post parto por medio de la administración de sales minerales, vitaminas y masajes ovarios; dicho tratamiento fue llevado a cabo en el municipio de Río Blanco departamento de Matagalpa. Caracterizándose por una buena distribución de las lluvias la mayor parte del año. El dicho municipio se da una predominancia de una cultura de gran alta productividad ganadera, el tamaño requerido de la muestra de este trabajo de 20 hembras en periodo de anestro post parto mayor de 50 días, las cuales fueron seleccionadas al azar y evalua das clínicamente por palpación rectal por un profesional de la medicina veterinaria. Los datos fueron analizados mediante la prueba de chi –cuadrado habiendo obtenido un resultado significativo a un nivel de confianza del 95% entre los tratamientos. Con base en los resultados obtenidos posterior al tratamiento de la administración de sales minerales, vitamina y masaje ovárico se alcan zó una respuesta positiva del 80 % al celo, el 80% en tasa de preñez y en relación a la aparición del celo posteri or al tratamiento se alcanzo una media de 6.13 días que al comparar la efectividad del tratamiento de solo la aplicación de masaje ovárico se observo un buen resultado positivo, superando las expectativas. En comparación con las hembras tratadas con solo masaje ovárico se obtuvo una respuesta positiva al celo de un 60%, con un 30% de tasa de preñez y 7.33 días promedio en anestro posterior al tratamiento, por lo tanto elaboramos la hipótesis basándonos en el estadígrafo de Chi-cuadrado obteniendo un resultado significativo empleando un nivel de significancia del 0.05% por lo que atribuimos las diferencias de ambos tratamientos.

Estudio preliminar de la utilizacion del agua de mar como suplemento nutritivo de sales minerales, como alternativa para la ganancia de peso en terneros al destete en la Finca "Santa Rita", comarca El Castillo, del municipio de Mulukuku, RAAN

El presente trabajo se realizó con el objetivo de evaluar la utilización del Agua de Mar como suplemento nutritivo de sales minerales, como alternativa en la ganancia de peso en terneros al destete en la Finca Sta. Rita, comarca el Castillo, municipio de Mulukukú, Región Autónoma del Atlántico Norte (RAAN), ubicada en las coordenadas: 13° 10 ́08 ́ ́ N y 085° 05 ́ 18 ́ ́ W, elevación sobre el nivel del mar de 137m. Se empleó un diseño completamente al azar (D.C.A), donde fueron utilizados 30 animales distribuidos aleatoriamente en tres grupos de 10 animales. Tratamiento I: 1 000 ml de agua de mar 1 vez al día por 30 días ; Tratamiento II 1 000 ml de agua de mar 2 veces al día por 30 días; Tratamiento III: Tratamiento testigo (no se aplicó ningún suplemento mineral). Los resultados obtenidos en ganancia de peso vivo, demostraron que no hubo diferencia significativa entre tratamientos, a pesar de esto se observó una pequeña diferencia teniendo los mejores resultados el Tratamiento I seguido del Tratamiento II y por último el Tratamiento III. De igual forma no se obtuvieron diferencias significativas en la ganancia media diaria entre tratamientos, obteniendo el Tratamiento I 0.4089 kg/Animal/dia, para el Tratamiento II fue de 0.3717 kg y para el Tratamiento III fue de 0.3585. Al realizar el análisis financiero observamos que el tratamiento que mayor rentabilidad nos proporcionaría es el Tratamiento I, obteniendo una utilidad neta de $894.96 dólares, el que se emplea en la finca es el Tratamiento III y este nos deja una utilidad neta de $751.02 dólares, al comparar estas utilidades encontramos una diferencia de $143.94 dólares.

Estudio de la conservación in vitro a tasas minimas de crecimiento en piña (Ananas comosus L.) mediante el efecto de osmoreguladores y la dilucion de las sales Murashige y Skoog (1962) a temperaturas de 24ºC y 16 ºC

En el presente estudio se necesitó establecer explantes de piña (Ananas comosus L.) del cultivar Cayena lisa, de los cuales se utilizaron yemas apicales y axilares seleccionadas por su buen estado fisiológico y morfológico. Estas se establecieron en condiciones in vitro utilizando el medio de cultivo básico Murashige & Skoog MS (1962), suplementado con 2 mg/1 de 6-Bencil aminopurina (6-BAP) y 0.02 mg/1 de ácido naftalen acético (ANA) en condiciones controladas de temperatura, humedad relativa e intensidad lumínica. Una vez que se logró micropropagar la cantidad de explantes necesarios para la conservación, se procedió a la aplicación de los inhibidores del crecimiento (manito!y sorbitol) en concentraciones de 10, 20 y 30 g/1 y de la dilución de las sales MS al 25, 50 y 75%, interactuando con temperaturas de 24 oc y 16 oc. A los 120 días de haber permanecido las yemas axilares en las diferentes variantes de medios de cultivo sujetas a estudio, se observó mayor deterioro fisiológico y morfológico de las plántulas en los tratamientos con 1O, 20 y 30 g/1 demanitol y sorbitol. En las variables altura, número de hojas y color de las hojas se experimentaron menores incrementos mensuales, sin embargo se registraron mayores daños, especialmente en las hojas, las cuales presentaron un mayor porcentaje con color verde clorótico a temperaturas de 24ºc de 16 °C. La sobrevivencia fue mayor a temperatura de 16ºc, por el contrario en las diluciones de las sales MS el deterioro fisiológico y morfológico de lasplántulas fue menor, observándose mayor sobrevivencia, presentando mayores porcentajes de coloración verde oscuro y un pequeño porcentaje de plántulas atípicas a temperaturas de 24 °C y 16 °C. También fue notoria la presencia deplántulas atípicas en el manito! y sorbitol a temperatura de 24 °C. Únicamente en el tratamiento a 30 g/1 de sorbitol se observó el fenómeno de vitrificación a temperatura de 24ºc en un 15%. Las diluciones de las sales indujeron mejores resultados en altura, número de hojas y color de las hojas en ambas temperaturas, sus características fenotípicas y genotípicas se mantuvieron iguales a pesar de la reducción del crecimiento