Implementation of safety based incentives in Public Private Partnerships (PPPs): an empirical analysis for the case of Spain

Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) are mostly implemented to circumvent budgetary constraints, and to encourage efficiency and quality in the provision of public infrastructure in order to reach social welfare. One of the ways of reaching the latter objective is by the introduction of performance based standards tied to bonuses and penalties to reward or punish the performance of the contractor. This paper focuses on the implementation of safety based incentives in PPPs in such a way that the better the safety outcome the greater larger will be the economic reward to the contractor. The main aim of this paper is to identify whether the incentives to improve road safety in PPPs are ultimately effective in improving safety ratios in Spain. To that end, Poisson and negative binomial regression models have been applied using information of motorways of the Spanish network of 2006. The findings indicate that even though road safety is highly influenced by variables that are not much controllable by the contractor such as the Average Annual Daily Traffic and the percentage of heavy vehicles, the implementation of safety incentives in PPPs has a positive influence in the reduction of fatalities, injuries and accidents.

Migration to an a on-line laboatory in mechanical engineering. The case of a cam-follower design practice.

The European Higher Education Area (EHEA) has leaded to a change in the way the subjects are taught. One of the more important aspects of the EHEA is to support the autonomous study of the students. Taking into account this new approach, the virtual laboratory of the subject Mechanisms of the Aeronautical studies at the Technical University of Madrid is being migrated to an on-line scheme. This virtual laboratory consist on two practices: the design of cam-follower mechanisms and the design of trains of gears. Both practices are software applications that, in the current situation, need to be installed on each computer and the students carry out the practice at the computer classroom of the school under the supervision of a teacher. During this year the design of cam-follower mechanisms practice has been moved to a web application using Java and the Google Development Toolkit. In this practice the students has to design and study the running of a cam to perform a specific displacement diagram with a selected follower taking into account that the mechanism must be able to work properly at high speed regime. The practice has maintained its objectives in the new platform but to take advantage of the new methodology and try to avoid the inconveniences that the previous version had shown. Once the new practice has been ready, a pilot study has been carried out to compare both approaches: on-line and in-lab. This paper shows the adaptation of the cam and follower practice to an on-line methodology. Both practices are described and the changes that has been done to the initial one are shown. They are compared and the weak and strong points of each one are analyzed. Finally we explain the pilot study carried out, the students impression and the results obtained.

Migration to an a on.line laboratory in mechanical engineering. The case of a cam follower design practice.

The European Higher Education Area (EHEA) has leaded to a change in the way the subjects are taught. One of the more important aspects of the EHEA is to support the autonomous study of the students. Taking into account this new approach, the virtual laboratory of the subject Mechanisms of the Aeronautical studies at the Technical University of Madrid is being migrated to an on-line scheme. This virtual laboratory consist on two practices: the design of cam-follower mechanisms and the design of trains of gears. Both practices are software applications that, in the current situation, need to be installed on each computer and the students carry out the practice at the computer classroom of the school under the supervision of a teacher. During this year the design of cam-follower mechanisms practice has been moved to a web application using Java and the Google Development Toolkit. In this practice the students has to design and study the running of a cam to perform a specific displacement diagram with a selected follower taking into account that the mechanism must be able to work properly at high speed regime. The practice has maintained its objectives in the new platform but to take advantage of the new methodology and try to avoid the inconveniences that the previous version had shown. Once the new practice has been ready, a pilot study has been carried out to compare both approaches: on-line and in-lab. This paper shows the adaptation of the cam and follower practice to an on-line methodology. Both practices are described and the changes that has been done to the initial one are shown. They are compared and the weak and strong points of each one are analyzed. Finally we explain the pilot study carried out, the students impression and the results obtained.

On-Chip Thermal Monitoring: Design, Placement and Interconnection of Temperature Sensors

La temperatura es una preocupación que juega un papel protagonista en el diseño de circuitos integrados modernos. El importante aumento de las densidades de potencia que conllevan las últimas generaciones tecnológicas ha producido la aparición de gradientes térmicos y puntos calientes durante el funcionamiento normal de los chips. La temperatura tiene un impacto negativo en varios parámetros del circuito integrado como el retardo de las puertas, los gastos de disipación de calor, la fiabilidad, el consumo de energía, etc. Con el fin de luchar contra estos efectos nocivos, la técnicas de gestión dinámica de la temperatura (DTM) adaptan el comportamiento del chip en función en la información que proporciona un sistema de monitorización que mide en tiempo de ejecución la información térmica de la superficie del dado. El campo de la monitorización de la temperatura en el chip ha llamado la atención de la comunidad científica en los últimos años y es el objeto de estudio de esta tesis. Esta tesis aborda la temática de control de la temperatura en el chip desde diferentes perspectivas y niveles, ofreciendo soluciones a algunos de los temas más importantes. Los niveles físico y circuital se cubren con el diseño y la caracterización de dos nuevos sensores de temperatura especialmente diseñados para los propósitos de las técnicas DTM. El primer sensor está basado en un mecanismo que obtiene un pulso de anchura variable dependiente de la relación de las corrientes de fuga con la temperatura. De manera resumida, se carga un nodo del circuito y posteriormente se deja flotando de tal manera que se descarga a través de las corrientes de fugas de un transistor; el tiempo de descarga del nodo es la anchura del pulso. Dado que la anchura del pulso muestra una dependencia exponencial con la temperatura, la conversión a una palabra digital se realiza por medio de un contador logarítmico que realiza tanto la conversión tiempo a digital como la linealización de la salida. La estructura resultante de esta combinación de elementos se implementa en una tecnología de 0,35 _m. El sensor ocupa un área muy reducida, 10.250 nm2, y consume muy poca energía, 1.05-65.5nW a 5 muestras/s, estas cifras superaron todos los trabajos previos en el momento en que se publicó por primera vez y en el momento de la publicación de esta tesis, superan a todas las implementaciones anteriores fabricadas en el mismo nodo tecnológico. En cuanto a la precisión, el sensor ofrece una buena linealidad, incluso sin calibrar; se obtiene un error 3_ de 1,97oC, adecuado para tratar con las aplicaciones de DTM. Como se ha explicado, el sensor es completamente compatible con los procesos de fabricación CMOS, este hecho, junto con sus valores reducidos de área y consumo, lo hacen especialmente adecuado para la integración en un sistema de monitorización de DTM con un conjunto de monitores empotrados distribuidos a través del chip. Las crecientes incertidumbres de proceso asociadas a los últimos nodos tecnológicos comprometen las características de linealidad de nuestra primera propuesta de sensor. Con el objetivo de superar estos problemas, proponemos una nueva técnica para obtener la temperatura. La nueva técnica también está basada en las dependencias térmicas de las corrientes de fuga que se utilizan para descargar un nodo flotante. La novedad es que ahora la medida viene dada por el cociente de dos medidas diferentes, en una de las cuales se altera una característica del transistor de descarga |la tensión de puerta. Este cociente resulta ser muy robusto frente a variaciones de proceso y, además, la linealidad obtenida cumple ampliamente los requisitos impuestos por las políticas DTM |error 3_ de 1,17oC considerando variaciones del proceso y calibrando en dos puntos. La implementación de la parte sensora de esta nueva técnica implica varias consideraciones de diseño, tales como la generación de una referencia de tensión independiente de variaciones de proceso, que se analizan en profundidad en la tesis. Para la conversión tiempo-a-digital, se emplea la misma estructura de digitalización que en el primer sensor. Para la implementación física de la parte de digitalización, se ha construido una biblioteca de células estándar completamente nueva orientada a la reducción de área y consumo. El sensor resultante de la unión de todos los bloques se caracteriza por una energía por muestra ultra baja (48-640 pJ) y un área diminuta de 0,0016 mm2, esta cifra mejora todos los trabajos previos. Para probar esta afirmación, se realiza una comparación exhaustiva con más de 40 propuestas de sensores en la literatura científica. Subiendo el nivel de abstracción al sistema, la tercera contribución se centra en el modelado de un sistema de monitorización que consiste de un conjunto de sensores distribuidos por la superficie del chip. Todos los trabajos anteriores de la literatura tienen como objetivo maximizar la precisión del sistema con el mínimo número de monitores. Como novedad, en nuestra propuesta se introducen nuevos parámetros de calidad aparte del número de sensores, también se considera el consumo de energía, la frecuencia de muestreo, los costes de interconexión y la posibilidad de elegir diferentes tipos de monitores. El modelo se introduce en un algoritmo de recocido simulado que recibe la información térmica de un sistema, sus propiedades físicas, limitaciones de área, potencia e interconexión y una colección de tipos de monitor; el algoritmo proporciona el tipo seleccionado de monitor, el número de monitores, su posición y la velocidad de muestreo _optima. Para probar la validez del algoritmo, se presentan varios casos de estudio para el procesador Alpha 21364 considerando distintas restricciones. En comparación con otros trabajos previos en la literatura, el modelo que aquí se presenta es el más completo. Finalmente, la última contribución se dirige al nivel de red, partiendo de un conjunto de monitores de temperatura de posiciones conocidas, nos concentramos en resolver el problema de la conexión de los sensores de una forma eficiente en área y consumo. Nuestra primera propuesta en este campo es la introducción de un nuevo nivel en la jerarquía de interconexión, el nivel de trillado (o threshing en inglés), entre los monitores y los buses tradicionales de periféricos. En este nuevo nivel se aplica selectividad de datos para reducir la cantidad de información que se envía al controlador central. La idea detrás de este nuevo nivel es que en este tipo de redes la mayoría de los datos es inútil, porque desde el punto de vista del controlador sólo una pequeña cantidad de datos |normalmente sólo los valores extremos| es de interés. Para cubrir el nuevo nivel, proponemos una red de monitorización mono-conexión que se basa en un esquema de señalización en el dominio de tiempo. Este esquema reduce significativamente tanto la actividad de conmutación sobre la conexión como el consumo de energía de la red. Otra ventaja de este esquema es que los datos de los monitores llegan directamente ordenados al controlador. Si este tipo de señalización se aplica a sensores que realizan conversión tiempo-a-digital, se puede obtener compartición de recursos de digitalización tanto en tiempo como en espacio, lo que supone un importante ahorro de área y consumo. Finalmente, se presentan dos prototipos de sistemas de monitorización completos que de manera significativa superan la características de trabajos anteriores en términos de área y, especialmente, consumo de energía. Abstract Temperature is a first class design concern in modern integrated circuits. The important increase in power densities associated to recent technology evolutions has lead to the apparition of thermal gradients and hot spots during run time operation. Temperature impacts several circuit parameters such as speed, cooling budgets, reliability, power consumption, etc. In order to fight against these negative effects, dynamic thermal management (DTM) techniques adapt the behavior of the chip relying on the information of a monitoring system that provides run-time thermal information of the die surface. The field of on-chip temperature monitoring has drawn the attention of the scientific community in the recent years and is the object of study of this thesis. This thesis approaches the matter of on-chip temperature monitoring from different perspectives and levels, providing solutions to some of the most important issues. The physical and circuital levels are covered with the design and characterization of two novel temperature sensors specially tailored for DTM purposes. The first sensor is based upon a mechanism that obtains a pulse with a varying width based on the variations of the leakage currents on the temperature. In a nutshell, a circuit node is charged and subsequently left floating so that it discharges away through the subthreshold currents of a transistor; the time the node takes to discharge is the width of the pulse. Since the width of the pulse displays an exponential dependence on the temperature, the conversion into a digital word is realized by means of a logarithmic counter that performs both the timeto- digital conversion and the linearization of the output. The structure resulting from this combination of elements is implemented in a 0.35_m technology and is characterized by very reduced area, 10250 nm2, and power consumption, 1.05-65.5 nW at 5 samples/s, these figures outperformed all previous works by the time it was first published and still, by the time of the publication of this thesis, they outnumber all previous implementations in the same technology node. Concerning the accuracy, the sensor exhibits good linearity, even without calibration it displays a 3_ error of 1.97oC, appropriate to deal with DTM applications. As explained, the sensor is completely compatible with standard CMOS processes, this fact, along with its tiny area and power overhead, makes it specially suitable for the integration in a DTM monitoring system with a collection of on-chip monitors distributed across the chip. The exacerbated process fluctuations carried along with recent technology nodes jeop-ardize the linearity characteristics of the first sensor. In order to overcome these problems, a new temperature inferring technique is proposed. In this case, we also rely on the thermal dependencies of leakage currents that are used to discharge a floating node, but now, the result comes from the ratio of two different measures, in one of which we alter a characteristic of the discharging transistor |the gate voltage. This ratio proves to be very robust against process variations and displays a more than suficient linearity on the temperature |1.17oC 3_ error considering process variations and performing two-point calibration. The implementation of the sensing part based on this new technique implies several issues, such as the generation of process variations independent voltage reference, that are analyzed in depth in the thesis. In order to perform the time-to-digital conversion, we employ the same digitization structure the former sensor used. A completely new standard cell library targeting low area and power overhead is built from scratch to implement the digitization part. Putting all the pieces together, we achieve a complete sensor system that is characterized by ultra low energy per conversion of 48-640pJ and area of 0.0016mm2, this figure outperforms all previous works. To prove this statement, we perform a thorough comparison with over 40 works from the scientific literature. Moving up to the system level, the third contribution is centered on the modeling of a monitoring system consisting of set of thermal sensors distributed across the chip. All previous works from the literature target maximizing the accuracy of the system with the minimum number of monitors. In contrast, we introduce new metrics of quality apart form just the number of sensors; we consider the power consumption, the sampling frequency, the possibility to consider different types of monitors and the interconnection costs. The model is introduced in a simulated annealing algorithm that receives the thermal information of a system, its physical properties, area, power and interconnection constraints and a collection of monitor types; the algorithm yields the selected type of monitor, the number of monitors, their position and the optimum sampling rate. We test the algorithm with the Alpha 21364 processor under several constraint configurations to prove its validity. When compared to other previous works in the literature, the modeling presented here is the most complete. Finally, the last contribution targets the networking level, given an allocated set of temperature monitors, we focused on solving the problem of connecting them in an efficient way from the area and power perspectives. Our first proposal in this area is the introduction of a new interconnection hierarchy level, the threshing level, in between the monitors and the traditional peripheral buses that applies data selectivity to reduce the amount of information that is sent to the central controller. The idea behind this new level is that in this kind of networks most data are useless because from the controller viewpoint just a small amount of data |normally extreme values| is of interest. To cover the new interconnection level, we propose a single-wire monitoring network based on a time-domain signaling scheme that significantly reduces both the switching activity over the wire and the power consumption of the network. This scheme codes the information in the time domain and allows a straightforward obtention of an ordered list of values from the maximum to the minimum. If the scheme is applied to monitors that employ TDC, digitization resource sharing is achieved, producing an important saving in area and power consumption. Two prototypes of complete monitoring systems are presented, they significantly overcome previous works in terms of area and, specially, power consumption.

Implicaciones de la accesibilidad configuracional en la movilidad peatonal. El caso de Madrid = The implications of configurational accessibility in pedestrian mobility. The case of Madrid

- Resumen La hipótesis que anima esta tesis doctoral es que algunas de las características del entorno urbano, en particular las que describen la accesibilidad de su red de espacio público, podrían estar relacionadas con la proporción de viajes a pie o reparto modal, que tiene cada zona o barrio de Madrid. Uno de los puntos de partida de dicha hipótesis que el entorno urbano tiene una mayor influencia sobre los viaje a pie que en sobre otros modos de transporte, por ejemplo que en los viajes de bicicleta o en transporte público; y es que parece razonable suponer que estos últimos van a estar más condicionadas por ejemplo por la disponibilidad de vías ciclistas, en el primer caso, o por la existencia de un servicio fiable y de calidad, en el segundo. Otra de las motivaciones del trabajo es que la investigación en este campo de la accesibilidad del espacio público, en concreto la denominada “Space Syntax”, ha probado en repetidas ocasiones la influencia de la red de espacio público en cómo se distribuye la intensidad del tráfico peatonal por la trama urbana, pero no se han encontrado referencias de la influencia de dicho elemento sobre el reparto modal. De acuerdo con la hipótesis y con otros trabajos anteriores se propone una metodología basada en el análisis empírico y cuantitativo. Su objetivo es comprobar si la red de espacio público, independientemente de otras variables como los usos del suelo, incluso de las variables de ajenas entorno no construido, como las socioeconómicas, está o no relacionada estadísticamente con la proporción de peatones viajes en las zonas urbanas. Las técnicas estadísticas se utilizan para comprobar sistemáticamente la asociación de las variables del entorno urbano, denominadas variables independientes, con el porcentaje de viajes a pie, la variable dependiente. En términos generales, la metodología es similar a la usada en otros trabajos en este campo como los de CERVERÓ y KOCKLEMAN (1997), CERVERÓ y DUNCAN (2003), o para los que se utilizan principalmente en la revisión general de TRB (2005) o, más recientemente, en ZEGRAS (2006) o CHATMAN (2009). Otras opciones metodológicas, como los métodos de preferencias declaradas (ver LOUVIERE, HENSHER y SWAIT, 2000) o el análisis basado en agentes (PENN & TURNER, 2004) fueron descartados, debido a una serie de razones, demasiado extensas para ser descritas aquí. El caso de estudio utilizado es la zona metropolitana de Madrid, abarcándola hasta la M-50, es decir en su mayor parte, con un tamaño aproximado de 31x34 Km y una población de 4.132.820 habitantes (aproximadamente el 80% de la población de la región). Las principales fuentes de datos son la Encuesta Domiciliaria de Movilidad de 2004 (EDM04), del Consorcio Regional de Transportes de Madrid que es la última disponible (muestra: > 35.000 familias,> 95.000 personas), y un modelo espacial del área metropolitana, integrando el modelo para calcular los índices de Space Syntax y un Sistema de Información Geográfica (SIG). La unidad de análisis, en este caso las unidades espaciales, son las zonas de transporte (con una población media de 7.063 personas) y los barrios (con una población media de 26.466 personas). Las variables del entorno urbano son claramente el centro del estudio. Un total de 20 índices (de 21) se seleccionan de entre los más relevantes encontrados en la revisión de la producción científica en este campo siendo que, al mismo tiempo, fueran accesibles. Nueve de ellos se utilizan para describir las características de los usos del suelo, mientras que otros once se usan para describir la red de espacios públicos. Estos últimos incluyen las variables de accesibilidad configuracional, que son, como se desprende de su título, el centro del estudio propuesto. La accesibilidad configuracional es un tipo especial de accesibilidad que se basa en la configuración de la trama urbana, según esta fue definida por HILLIER (1996), el autor de referencia dentro de esta línea de investigación de Space Syntax. Además se incluyen otras variables de la red de espacio público más habituales en los estudios de movilidad, y que aquí se denominan características geométricas de los elementos de la red, tales como su longitud, tipo de intersección, conectividad, etc. Por último se incluye además una variable socioeconómica, es decir ajena al entorno urbano, para evaluar la influencia de los factores externos, pues son varios los que pueden tener un impacto en la decisión de caminar (edad, género, nivel de estudios, ingresos, tasa de motorización, etc.). La asociación entre las variables se han establecido usando análisis de correlación (bivariante) y modelos de análisis multivariante. Las primeras se calculan entre por pares entre cada una de las 21 variables independientes y la dependiente, el porcentaje de viajes a pie. En cuanto a los segundos, se han realizado tres tipos de estudios: modelo multivariante general lineal, modelo multivariante general curvilíneo y análisis discriminante. Todos ellos son capaces de generar modelos de asociación entre diversas variables, pudiéndose de esta manera evaluar con bastante precisión en qué medida cada modelo reproduce el comportamiento de la variable dependiente, y además, el peso o influencia de cada variable en el modelo respecto a las otras. Los resultados fundamentales del estudio se expresan en dos modelos finales alternativos, que demuestran tener una significativa asociación con el porcentaje de viajes a pie (R2 = 0,6789, p <0,0001), al explicar las dos terceras partes de su variabilidad. En ellos, y en general en todo el estudio realizado, se da una influencia constante de tres índices en particular, que quedan como los principales. Dos de ellos, de acuerdo con muchos de los estudios previos, corresponden a la densidad y la mezcla de usos del suelo. Pero lo más novedoso de los resultados obtenidos es que el tercero es una medida de la accesibilidad de la red de espacio público, algo de lo que no había referencias hasta ahora. Pero, ¿cuál es la definición precisa y el peso relativo de cada uno en el modelo, es decir, en la variable independiente? El de mayor peso en la mayor parte de los análisis realizados es el índice de densidad total (n º residentes + n º puestos de trabajo + n º alumnos / Ha). Es decir, una densidad no sólo de población, sino que incluye algunas de las actividades más importantes que pueden darse una zona para generar movilidad a pie. El segundo que mayor peso adquiere, llegando a ser el primero en alguno de los análisis estadísticos efecturados, es el índice de accesibuilidad configuracional denominado integración de radio 5. Se trata de una medida de la accesibilidad de la zona, de su centralidad, a la escala de, más un menor, un distrito o comarca. En cuanto al tercero, obtiene una importancia bastante menor que los anteriores, y es que representa la mezcla de usos. En concreto es una medida del equilibrio entre los comercios especializados de venta al por menor y el número de residentes (n º de tiendas especializadas en alimentación, bebidas y tabaco / n º de habitantes). Por lo tanto, estos resultados confirman buena parte de los de estudios anteriores, especialmente los relativas a los usos del suelo, pero al mismo tiempo, apuntan a que la red de espacio público podría tener una influir mayor de la comprobada hasta ahora en la proporción de peatones sobre el resto de modos de transportes. Las razones de por qué esto puede ser así, se discuten ampliamente en las conclusiones. Finalmente se puede precisar que dicha conclusión principal se refiere a viajes de una sola etapa (no multimodales) que se dan en los barrios y zonas del área metropolitana de Madrid. Por supuesto, esta conclusión tiene en la actualidad, una validez limitada, ya que es el resultado de un solo caso — Abstract The research hypothesis for this Ph.D. Thesis is that some characteristics of the built environment, particularly those describing the accessibility of the public space network, could be associated with the proportion of pedestrians in all trips (modal split), found in the different parts of a city. The underlying idea is that walking trips are more sensitive to built environment than those by other transport modes, such as for example those by bicycle or by public transport, which could be more conditioned by, e.g. infrastructure availability or service frequency and quality. On the other hand, it has to be noted that the previously research on this field, in particular within Space Syntax’s where this study can be referred, have tested similar hypothesis using pedestrian volumes as the dependent variable, but never against modal split. According to such hypothesis, research methodology is based primarily on empirical quantitative analysis, and it is meant to be able to assess whether public space network, no matter other built environment and non-built environment variables, could have a relationship with the proportion of pedestrian trips in urban areas. Statistical techniques are used to check the association of independent variables with the percentage of walking in all trips, the dependent one. Broadly speaking this methodology is similar to that of previous studies in the field such as CERVERO&KOCKLEMAN (1997), CERVERO & DUNCAN (2003), or to those used mainly in the general review of T.R.B. (2005) or, more recently in ZEGRAS (2006) or CHATMAN (2009). Other methodological options such as stated choice methods (see LOUVIERE, HENSHER & SWAIT, 2000) or agent based analysis (PENN & TURNER, 2004), were discarded, due to a number of reasons, too long to be described here. The case study is not the entire Madrid’s metropolitan area, but almost (4.132.820 inhabitants, about 80% of region´s population). Main data sources are the Regional Mobility Home Based Survey 2004 (EDM04), which is the last available (sample: >35.000 families, > 95.000 individuals), and a spatial model of the metropolitan area, developed using Space Syntax and G.I.S. techniques. The analysis unit, in this case spatial units, are both transport zones (mean population = 7.063) and neighborhoods (mean population = 26.466). The variables of the built environment are clearly the core of the study. A total of 20 (out of 21) are selected from among those found in the literature while, at the same time, being accessible. Nine out of them are used to describe land use characteristics while another eleven describe the network of public spaces. Latter ones include configurational accessibility or Space Syntax variables. This is a particular sort of accessibility related with the concept of configuration, by HILLIER (1996), one of the main authors of Space Syntax, But it also include more customary variables used in mobility research to describe the urban design or spatial structure (here public space network), which here are called geometric characteristics of the such as its length, type of intersection, conectivity, density, etc. Finally a single socioeconomic variable was included in order to assess the influence non built environment factors that also may have an impact on walking (age, income, motorization rate, etc.). The association among variables is worked out using bi-variate correlation analysis and multivariate-analysis. Correlations are calculated among the 21 independent variables and the dependent one, the percentage of walking trips. Then, three types of multi-variate studies are run: general linear, curvilinear and discriminant multi-variate analysis. The latter are fully capable of generating complex association models among several variables, assessing quite precisely to what extent each model reproduces the behavior of the dependent variable, and also the weight or influence of each variable in the model. This study’s results show a consistent influence of three particular indexes in the two final alternative models of the multi-variate study (best, R2=0,6789, p<0,0000). Not surprisingly, two of them correspond to density and mix of land uses. But perhaps more interesting is that the third one is a measure of the accessibility of the public space network, a variable less important in the literature up to now. Additional precisions about them and their relative weight could also be of some interest. The density index is not only about population but includes most important activities in an area (nº residents + nº jobs+ nº students/Ha). The configurational index (radius 5 integration) is a measure of the accessibility of the area, i.e. centrality, at the scale of, more a less, a district. Regarding the mix of land uses index, this one is a measure of the balance between retail, in fact local basic retail, and the number of residents (nº of convenience shops / nº of residents). Referring to their weights, configurational index (radius 5 integration) gets the higher standardized coefficient of the final equation. However, in the final equations, there are a higher number of indexes coming from the density or land use mix categories than from public space network enter. Therefore, these findings seem to support part of the field’s knowledge, especially those concerning land uses, but at the same time they seem to bring in the idea that the configuration of the urban grid could have an influence in the proportion of walkers (as a part of total trips on any transport mode) that do single journey trips in the neighborhoods of Madrid, Spain. Of course this conclusion has, at present, a limited validity since it’s the result of a single case. The reasons of why this can be so, are discussed in the last part of the thesis.

Do charges to freight trucks and trains in the European Union reflect their social marginal costs? Application to the case of Spain

In the last few years, the European Union (EU) has become greatly concerned about the environmental costs of road transport in Europe as a result of the constant growth in the market share of trucks and the steady decline in the market share of railroads. In order to reverse this trend, the EU is promoting the implementation of additional charges for heavy goods vehicles (HGV) on the trunk roads of the EU countries. However, the EU policy is being criticised because it does not address the implementation of charges to internalise the external costs produced by automobiles and other transport modes such as railroad. In this paper, we first describe the evolution of the HGV charging policy in the EU, and then assess its practical implementation across different European countries. Second, and of greater significance, by using the case study of Spain, we evaluate to what extent the current fees on trucks and trains reflect their social marginal costs, and consequently lead to an allocative-efficient outcome. We found that for the average case in Spain the truck industry meets more of the marginal social cost produced by it than does the freight railroad industry. The reason for this lies in the large sums of money paid by truck companies in fuel taxes, and the subsidies that continue to be granted by the government to the railroads.

Fracture propagation and stress corrosion in the case of dissimilar laser hybrid welded joints

The paper addresses the fracture propagation and stress corrosion behaviour of laser hybrid welds achieved between low carbon steel and stainless steel thin sheets. The crack propagation within these overmatched in strength welds was investigated by crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) on CT specimens notched transverse to the weld. A Digital Image Correlation System was used to qualify and estimate the initial crack length obtained by fatigue. The results are associated with the fractographic examinations of various regions of laser hybrid joints. Stress corrosion behaviour of the joint is also discussed.

The human side of social technology for climate change mitigation and human development: the case of "efficient stoves" in Brazil

Carbon management has gradually gained attention within the overall environmental management and corporate social responsibility agendas. The clean development mechanism, from Kyoto Protocol, was envisioned as connecting carbon market and sustainable development objectives in developing countries. Previous research has shown that this potential is rarely being achieved. The paper explores how the incorporation of the human side into carbon management reinforces its contribution to generate human development in local communities and to improve the company's image. A case study of a Brazilian company is presented, with the results of the application of an analytical model that incorporates the human side and human development. The selected project is an "efficient stoves" programme. "Efficient stoves" are recognised in Brazil as social technologies. Results suggest that the fact that social technologies value the human side of the technology plays a key role when it comes to analysing the co-benefits of the project implementation.

Land use modelling and the role of stakeholders in natural protected areas: the case of Doñana national park, Spain

Doñana, a National Park since 1969, a UNESCO site since 1994 among other protected area designations of national and international character, is a coastal dune and marshland ecosystem of outstanding importance for biodiversity and conservation at the mouth of the Guadalaquivir River, Southwest Spain. However, the Doñana natural area is seriously threatened by global change factors such as humanly induced climate change, habitat loss, overexploitation of ecosystem services, and pollution. Not all stakeholders are convinced of the benefits of the national park, and management of Doñana, its environs and watershed are the subject of intense disagreement. This interplay between natural characteristics of great value with intense human pressure makes Doñana a fascinating workshop for the study of global human environment interactions. Here, we discuss the role of stakeholders in the application of a cellular automatabased model to Doñana and its environs and present the results of a series of exercises undertaken with stakeholders to parametrize the model, something often done by researchers without stakeholder engagement. By engaging with stakeholders early in the project, feedback generated from workshops contributes to model development. Stakeholders are therefore contributors of empirical data for the model as well as independent evaluators providing local and specialist knowledge.

Reuse of vacant agro-industrial buildings. The case of the public slaughterhouses in Spain

Nearly 3000 slaughterhouses (74% of them public facilities) were built in Spain during the last decades of the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century. The need to comply with new technical requirements and regulations on the hygiene of the meat passed in the 70s and the gradual replacement of public facilities by larger and more modern private slaughterhouses have subsequently led to the closure and abandonment of many of these buildings. Public slaughterhouses generally consisted of several single-storey and open-plan buildings located around a courtyard. Although originally they were preferably located on the outskirts of the towns, many slaughterhouses are now placed inside the built up areas, due to the urban development. The present work aims to contribute to a better understanding of these agro-industrial buildings and to provide ideas for their conservation and reuse. A review on the historical evolution and the architectural features of the public slaughterhouses in Spain is presented and different examples of old vacant slaughterhouses reused to accommodate libraries, offices, community centres, exhibition halls or sports centres, among others, are shown in the paper.

Crack mechanical failure in ceramic materials under ion irradiation: case of lithium niobate crystal

Swift heavy ion irradiation (ions with mass heavier than 15 and energy exceeding MeV/amu) transfer their energy mainly to the electronic system with small momentum transfer per collision. Therefore, they produce linear regions (columnar nano-tracks) around the straight ion trajectory, with marked modifications with respect to the virgin material, e.g., phase transition, amorphization, compaction, changes in physical or chemical properties. In the case of crystalline materials the most distinctive feature of swift heavy ion irradiation is the production of amorphous tracks embedded in the crystal. Lithium niobate is a relevant optical material that presents birefringence due to its anysotropic trigonal structure. The amorphous phase is certainly isotropic. In addition, its refractive index exhibits high contrast with those of the crystalline phase. This allows one to fabricate waveguides by swift ion irradiation with important technological relevance. From the mechanical point of view, the inclusion of an amorphous nano-track (with a density 15% lower than that of the crystal) leads to the generation of important stress/strain fields around the track. Eventually these fields are the origin of crack formation with fatal consequences for the integrity of the samples and the viability of the method for nano-track formation. For certain crystal cuts (X and Y), these fields are clearly anisotropic due to the crystal anisotropy. We have used finite element methods to calculate the stress/strain fields that appear around the ion- generated amorphous nano-tracks for a variety of ion energies and doses. A very remarkable feature for X cut-samples is that the maximum shear stress appears on preferential planes that form +/-45º with respect to the crystallographic planes. This leads to the generation of oriented surface cracks when the dose increases. The growth of the cracks along the anisotropic crystal has been studied by means of novel extended finite element methods, which include cracks as discontinuities. In this way we can study how the length and depth of a crack evolves as function of the ion dose. In this work we will show how the simulations compare with experiments and their application in materials modification by ion irradiation.

Effects of different soil management practices on soil mechanic resistance and seed depth placement in a maize crop in Alentejo, Portugal Mediterranean region.

No tillage, minimum tillage and conventional tillage practices are commonly used in maize crops in Alentejo, affecting soil physic conditions and determining seeders performance. Seeders distribution can be evaluated in the longitudinal and vertical planes. Vertical plane is specified by seeding depth (Karayel et al., 2008). If, in one hand seeding depth uniformity is a goal for all crop establishment , in the other hand, seeders furrow openers depth control is never constant depending on soil conditions. Seed depth uniformity affects crop emergence, Liu et al. (2004) showed an higher correlation between crop productivity and emergence uniformity than with longitudinal plants distribution. Neto et al. (2007) evaluating seed depth placement by measuring maize mesocotyl length under no tillage conditions in 38 farms concluded that 20% of coefficient of variation suggests the need of improvement seeders depth control mechanisms. The objective of this study was to evaluate casual relationships and create spatial variability maps between soil mechanic resistance and vertical distribution under three different soil practices to improve seed depth uniformity.

Effectiveness of safety-based incentives in Public Private Partnerships: Evidence from the case of Spain

Many countries around the world are implementing Public?Private?Partnership (PPP) contacts to manage road infrastructure. In some of these contracts the public sector introduces economic incentives to the private operator to foster the accomplishment of social goals. One of the incentives that have been introduced in some PPP contracts is related to safety in such a way that the better the safety outcome the greater will be the economic reward to the contractor. The aim of this paper is at identify whether the incentives to improve road safety in highway PPPs are ultimately effective in improving safety ratios. To this end Poisson and negative binomial regression models have been applied using information from highway sections in Spain. The findings indicate that even though road safety is highly influenced by variables that are not much controllable by the contractor such as the Average Annual Daily Traffic and the percentage of heavy vehicles, the implementation of safety incentives in PPPs has a positive influence in the reduction of fatalities, injuries and accidents.

Relationship between objective and subjective indicators in urban soundscape analysis. The case of Cordoba - Argentina

This paper presents the main results of a comparative evaluation of some acoustical parameters with the user´s perception of urban sounds. The study was carried out in three open spaces integrated with different environmental characteristics but similar objective conditions of urban noise. The subjective evaluation was done by means of a survey simultaneously with the objective measurements. The results of the crossed analysis confirmed that in environments with similar noise levels not always exists direct correlation between the objetive indicators and the acoustic comfort of the people. To predict the acustical quality of the soundscape it is necessary to consider aspects such as the background noise and the perception of natural or technological sounds as complements of the general sound level.

Experiences on the specification of algorithms for fire and smoke control in road tunnels

The main objective of ventilation systems in case of fire is the reduction of the possible consequences by achieving the best possible conditions for the evacuation of the users and the intervention of the emergency services. The required immediate transition, from normal to emergency functioning of the ventilation equipments, is being strengthened by the use of automatic and semi-automatic control systems, what reduces the response times through the help to the operators, and the use of pre-defined strategies. A further step consists on the use of closed-loop algorithms, which takes into account not only the initial conditions but their development (air velocity, traffic situation, etc.), optimizing smoke control capacity.