Influence, policy formation, and higher education in Florida: 1989--1994

This study examined the perceptions of state governmental officials and administrators from the state university system, community college system, and independent institutions concerning the ability of various groups to influence state-level higher education policy formation. The study was conducted in Florida for the period 1989-94. Florida has a history of legislative involvement in higher education, a unique system of state universities and community colleges, and a limited number of private institutions of higher education. This study was grounded in the works of Mortimer and McConnell (1978), Millett (1987), Marshall, Mitchell, and Wirt (1989) and Finitfer, Baldwin, and Thelin (1991).^ The study represented the application of an embedded, single-case design. A survey was the primary collection instrument. Respondents were asked questions concerning: (a) personal involvement in higher education, (b) perceptions of the ability of various groups to influence higher education policy, (c) the names of particular individuals considered key players in higher education policy formation, (d) important state-level documents, (e) personal knowledge of key areas of policy formation, and (f) emerging higher education issues in Florida. Quantitative and qualitative methods were used to analyze the different sections of the survey.^ The findings indicated that a power and influence hierarchy exists among the various groups that attempt to influence higher education policy and that this hierarchy is recognized by state government officials and higher education administrators. While an analysis of variance of the various groups revealed a few differences between state government officials and higher education personnel, the high overall agreement was an important finding. Leading members of the legislature, especially the Chair of the Senate Higher Education Committee, and key staff members, especially from the Senate Ways & Means Committee, were considered the most influential. Representatives from higher education institutions and research organizations were considered among the least influential. Emerging issues identified by the respondents included: (a) the political nature of state-level policy formation, (b) the role of legislative staff, (c) the competition for state moneys, (d) legislative concern for state-wide budgetary efficiency, and (e) legislative attempts to define quality and supervise academic program development for higher education. ^

An analysis of the on-time graduation rate in the two-year program at National Taipei Institute of Technology in Taiwan

Taiwan's technical vocational educational system includes three levels: (1) institutes of technology (two and four year programs), (2) junior colleges (two, three and five year programs), and (3) senior vocational schools. Two-year junior colleges enroll their students through two channels: (1) based on results of the Particular Screening Entrance Examination (PSEE), (2) based on the Joint College Entrance Examination (JCEE). The PSEE has two categories: Category I includes on-time graduates with excellent performance, which means that they are within the top ten of their classes; Category II students include award-winning students in talent contests who have achieved a minimum grade point average of 75%. The JCEE is a regular entrance examination given to any senior vocation school graduate.^ Basic courses have a great impact on the students' academic performance. The purpose of the study was to focus on the effectiveness of teaching mathematics in two-year junior colleges and to analyze and correlate the results of two-year junior college students' performance in calculus and on-time graduation. The target group consisted of 521 students enrolled at National Taipei Institute of Technology in 1993.^ Calculus is a very important course for engineering majors in two-year junior colleges and has a great impact on the students' academic performance. This retrospective study showed that there was a correlation between students' performance in calculus and on-time graduation after two years of study.^ The conclusions of the study urge the Ministry of Education to reform two-year junior college curriculum standards to emphasize basic rudimentary courses. It is recommended that engineering majors receive three hours of calculus per week as the current requirement of only two hours per week is inadequate. The future job market will require a technologically advanced labor force that can be trained in a higher education system. More channels of higher education for two-year junior college graduates should be made available for those wishing to pursue bachelor degrees. Additional work in calculus will not only enhance the opportunities for two-year junior college graduates to continue their pursuit of an advanced academic degree, but also serve them well as they seek career advancement. ^

Characteristics of effective clinical and theory instructors as perceived by LPN to RN versus generic students in an associate degree nursing program

The purpose of this study was to compare the characteristics of effective clinical and theory instructors as perceived by LPN/RN versus generic students in an associate degree nursing program.^ Data were collected from 508 students during the 1996-7 academic year from three NLN accredited associate degree nursing programs. The researcher developed instrument consisted of three parts: (a) Whitehead Characteristics of Effective Clinical Instructor Rating Scale, (b) Whitehead Characteristics of Effective Theory Instructor Rating Scale, and (c) Demographic Data Sheet. The items were listed under five major categories identified in the review of the literature: (a) interpersonal relationships, (b) personality traits, (c) teaching practices, (d) knowledge and experience, and (e) evaluation procedures. The instrument was administered to LPN/RN students in their first semester and to generic students in the third semester of an associate degree nursing program.^ Data was analyzed using a one factor mutivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). Further t tests were carried out to explore for possible differences between type of student and by group. Crosstabulations of the demographic data were analyzed.^ There were no significant differences found between the LPN/RN versus generic students on their perceptions of either effective theory or effective clinical instructor characteristics. There were significant differences between groups on several of the individual items. There was no significant interaction between group and ethnicity or group and age on the five major categories for either of the two instruments. There was a significant main effect of ethnicity on several of the individual items.^ The differences between the means and standard deviations on both instruments were small, suggesting that all of the characteristics listed for effective theory and clinical instructors were important to both groups of students. Effective teaching behaviors, as indicated on the survey instruments, should be taught to students in graduate teacher education programs. These behaviors should also be discussed by faculty coordinators supervising adjunct faculty. Nursing educators in associate degree nursing programs should understand theories of adult learning and implement instructional strategies to enhance minority student success. ^

The clinical competency of practicing and nonpracticing faculty of associate degree schools of nursing

This study assesses and describes the perception of clinical competency and the relationship to clinical practice of full-time nursing faculty in the associate degree nursing programs in the state of Florida. The study was developed around one major hypothesis and four research questions. The Hygiene-Motivators Theory proposed by Herzberg, Mausner, and Snyderman (1959) provided the conceptual framework to explain factors that would motivate a person to expand workload and maintain job satisfaction.^ Data were collected from the 244 faculty members teaching full-time at the 15 associate degree schools of nursing accredited by the National League for Nursing in the state of Florida. A total of 186 faculty (76%) responded and 175 (72%) cases were used for data analysis.^ Two instruments were modified and combined for the investigation. The instruments were the Faculty Perception of Practice Questionnaire (Parascenzo, 1983) and a three-part Attributes Deemed Necessary for Faculty to Proclaim Clinical Competency (Smith, 1991) scale. Computer analyses employing descriptive and inferential statistics were performed.^ The findings revealed that faculty were closely divided as to practice activities with more faculty nonpracticing than practicing. Factors identified as impediments to increased clinical practice were identified as teaching load and personal/family responsibilities that lead to a lack of time and lack of opportunity. Those faculty who practice did so as moonlighters in positions that would not require advanced training. Both the practicing and nonpracticing faculty reported a high level of satisfaction with their activities as a means of maintaining clinical practice. While both groups reported a high level of expertise, those practicing faculty perceived themselves to be more clinically competent on the attributes of knowledge, skills, and on the total attribute scale. It was further revealed that perception of competency declined with the length of time spent out of practice. There was no difference in the two groups on the attributes of values/attitude. ^

A study of state and trait anxiety and perceived causes of anxiety identified by licensed practical nurses returning to an associate degree nursing program

The purpose of this study was to identify the state and trait anxiety and the perceived causes of anxiety in licensed practical nurses (LPNs) returning to an associate degree nursing program in order to become registered nurses (RNs). The subjects for this study were 98 students enrolled in a transitional LPN/RN associate degree nursing program in two community colleges in the state of Florida. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) developed by Spielberger (1983), was used as the measuring instrument for this study.^ In addition, a Q-sort technique was used to obtain information from the subjects regarding perceived causes of anxiety. Anxiety causes for the Q-sort cards used in the study were developed from the themes identified by a sample of LPN/RN students in a pilot study. The state and trait anxiety levels were obtained using the STAI for college students scoring key and scales. Descriptive statistics were used to determine the state and trait anxiety of the students. Correlational statistics were used to determine if relationships existed between the state and trait anxiety levels and perceived causes of anxiety identified by LPN students returning to an associate degree nursing program.^ The analysis of the Q-sort was performed by computing the means, standard deviations, and frequencies of each cause. The mean trait anxiety level of the students was 57.56, $SD=29.69.$ The mean state anxiety level of the students was 68.21, $SD=25.78.$ Higher percentile scores of trait anxiety were associated with higher ranks of the Q-sort category, "failing out of the program," $\rm r\sb{s}=.27,\ p=.008.$ Implications for future nursing research and application of the findings to nursing education are presented. ^

A comparison of the impact of trained media specialists and untrained media personnel in junior colleges in the Republic of China

From educational, communications, psychological, and technical points of view, the renovation of pedagogy in media education is based upon the promotion of "educational technology." The promotion of educational technology relies upon the appropriate availability and knowledge of different educational media made available by the trained media personnel.^ In the past three decades most of the junior colleges in Taiwan set up educational media centers to help students learn through the use of media which enables them to obtain optimum benefits in a short time. What are the roles the media personnel play in the media center? What responsibilities have they to bear in the center? What differences are there when a trained and untrained media personnel are presented in junior colleges media center in Taiwan? What do the trained and untrained media personnel feel toward the importance of each media service in the area of media center's administration, media production, specialized media duties, and the training of staff in media use? These are the questions addressed in this study.^ Through the study of the related literature and a survey conducted in the junior colleges in Taiwan, recommendations are offered to provide improvement of the services and training of media specialists in Taiwan that are appropriate for a changing work and environment. These recommendations are for media specialists to be formally trained to effectively serve the changing needs of school library media so as to make optimal use of media in the junior colleges. ^

Perceptions of family environment, body image and self-esteem of eating disordered and non-eating disordered women

This study explored the perceptions of family environment, body image and self esteem of women who suffer from anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and depression. Using a nonequivalent control group design, one hundred and fifty women with anorexia nervosa (n = 50), bulimia nervosa (n = 50), and depression (n = 50) were given the Family Environment Scale (FES) and the Eating Disorders Inventory-2 (EDI-2). The objectives of this study were to: (1) study how women with anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa perceive their family environment as measured by the FES; (2) compare and contrast perceptions of family environment of women with anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa with the control group; (3) compare and contrast perceived levels of self esteem and body image as measured by the EDI-2 of women with anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa with the control group; and (4) examine the perceived family environments of eating disordered and non-eating disordered women with regard to body image and self esteem. Results suggested, women who suffered from anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa scored significantly lower (p $<$.021) on the Expressiveness, Intellectual-Cultural Orientation, and Active-Recreational subscales of the FES. The results also indicated that women who suffered from bulimia nervosa scored significantly higher (p $<$.015) than women who suffered from anorexia nervosa on the Conflict and Independence subscales of the FES. The results of studying these three populations reflected that women who suffered from anorexia nervosa scored significantly different (p $<$.000) than women who suffered from bulimia nervosa on many of the subscales of the EDI-2. The findings of the study confirmed that women who suffered from anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa scored significantly different (p $<$.000) on the subscales of the EDI-2 compared to women who suffered from depression. It was also confirmed that a relationship does exist between perceptions of body image and self esteem and perceptions of family environment amongst women with anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa as compared to depressed women. The findings of the study indicated that women who suffered from anorexia nervosa tended to: be less expressive and independent; handle conflict less openly; have a greater drive for thinness; have greater body dissatisfaction; be more perfectionistic; and struggle more intensely with fears around maturity and social insecurity than did women who suffered from bulimia nervosa or depression. In addition, the findings of the study also suggested that women who suffered from bulimia nervosa tended to: be raised in homes where openly expressed anger is permitted amongst family members; have a lesser drive for thinness; have less body dissatisfaction; be less perfectionistic; and not struggle as intensely with fears around maturity and social insecurity as do women who suffered from anorexia nervosa, but more than women who suffer from depression. Treatment implications that may assist community college professors and counselors in meeting the special needs of this special group of women were also discussed. (Abstract shortened by UMI.) ^

The relationship between participation in unethical behaviors during the nursing student experience and participation in unethical behaviors as a registered nurse

The effect of unethical behaviors in health care settings is an important issue in the safe care of clients and has been a concern of the nursing profession for some time. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between use of unethical behaviors in the nursing student experience and the use of unethical behaviors in the workplace as a registered nurse. In addition, the relationship between the severity of unethical behaviors utilized in the classroom, clinical setting and those in the workplace was examined. To insure greater honesty in self-report, only a limited number of demographic variables were requested from participants.^ During the summer of 1997, a 56 item questionnaire was distributed to registered nurses enrolled in either undergraduate or graduate courses in a public or private institution. The participants were asked to self-report their own use of unethical behaviors as well as their peers use of unethical behaviors. In order to assign a severity score for each item, nursing school faculty were asked to rate severity of unethical behaviors which could be used during the nursing student experience and nursing administrators were asked to rate unethical behaviors which could be used in the workplace.^ A significant positive relationship was found between individuals' use of unethical behaviors during nursing school and those used in the workplace $r=.630.$ A significant positive relationship was found between the severity of unethical behaviors used in the nursing student experience and the severity of unethical behaviors used in the workplace $r=.637.$ No relationship was found between years of practice, type of initial nursing education and whether or not the participant was raised inside or outside the United States and the use of unethical behaviors. ^

The knowledge and use of critical thinking teaching strategies of faculty in associate degree nursing education programs

The purpose of this study was to determine the knowledge and use of critical thinking teaching strategies by full-time and part-time faculty in Associate Degree Nursing (ADN) programs. ^ Sanders CTI (1992) instrument was adapted for this study and pilot-tested prior to the general administration to ADN faculty in Southeast Florida. This modified instrument, now termed the Burroughs Teaching Strategy Inventory (BTSI), returned reliability estimates (Cronbach alphas of .71, .74, and .82 for the three constructs) comparable to the original instrument. The BTSI was administered to 113 full-time and part-time nursing faculty in three community college nursing programs. The response rate was 92% for full-time faculty (n = 58) and 61% for part-time faculty (n = 55). ^ The majority of participants supported a combined definition of critical thinking in nursing which represented a composite of thinking skills that included reflective thinking, assessing alternative viewpoints, and the use of problem-solving. Full-time and part-time faculty used different teaching strategies. Full-time faculty most often used multiple-choice exams and lecture while part-time faculty most frequently used discussion within their classes. One possible explanation for specific strategy choices and differences might be that full-time faculty taught predominately in theory classes where certain strategies would be more appropriate and part-time faculty taught predominately clinical classes. Both faculty types selected written nursing care plans as the second most effective critical thinking strategy. ^ Faculty identified several strategies as being effective in teaching critical thinking. These strategies included discussion, case studies, higher order questioning, and concept analysis. These however, were not always the strategies that were used in either the classroom or clinical setting. ^ Based on this study, the author recommends that if the profession continues to stress critical thinking as a vital component of practice, nursing faculty should receive education in appropriate critical teaching strategies. Both in-service seminars and workshops could be used to further the knowledge and use of critical thinking strategies by faculty. Qualitative research should be done to determine why nursing faculty use self-selected teaching strategies. ^

Transcultural experiences: A literature bridge to English for ESOL students from Cuba

This qualitative study is concerned with exploring the transcultural experiences of ESOL students and connecting their lived experiences to literature in the classroom. The purpose of this study was to describe and explain the transcultural perspectives of six high school and community college students: four Cuban born students and two American born/raised students of Cuban-American culture. The participants were from Barbara Goleman Senior High School and Miami-Dade Community College. The six phenomenological portraits were explored in the form of lived experience pieces, representing the students' transcultural experiences. The data was collected in the form of student interviews, researcher's journal, and document reviews. The following exploratory questions guided this study: (1) From the perspective of four Cuban-born, non-native English-speaking students (NNS), what are the essential structures of their transcultural identities? (2) What are the underlying themes that account for the Cuban NNS students' transcultural experiences? (3) What are the universal transcultural structures among the Cuban NNS students' transcultural experiences and the Cuban-American, native English/Spanish speaking (NESS) students' experiences? (4) What are the possible structural meanings of the Cuban NNS students' interests in relation to their transcultural experiences? (5) What are some connections between the structural themes inherent in the Cuban NNS students' transcultural experiences and teaching literature in ESOL? ^ A phenomenological approach was used to investigate the participants' transcultural experiences, focused on the students' lived experiences. The study consisted of three interview sessions for each of the six participants. The analysis of the data was conducted following the principles of qualitative research, which included participant interviews, thematic analysis, researcher's journal, document reviews, and triangulation. The researcher created portraits representing students' transcultural experiences. Subsequently, the participants' transcultural experiences were used to respond to the exploratory questions, including comparing and contrasting themes and drawing connections among teaching literature in the ESOL classroom. ^ The results of this study show some relevant specific statements and themes that emerged from the students' transcultural data. The results serve as a better understanding of these students' transcultural experiences and the potentiality of connecting their perspectives to literature in the classroom. In addition, this study shows the need for a better understanding of the connection between transcultural experiences and literature in ESOL. ^

Assessing the effectiveness of two-year banking and insurance technology programs of junior colleges in Taiwan, R.O.C.: An application of the Context Input Process Product (CIPP) evaluation model

The purpose of this descriptive study was to evaluate the banking and insurance technology curriculum at ten junior colleges in Taiwan. The study focused on curriculum, curriculum materials, instruction, support services, student achievement and job performance. Data was collected from a diverse sample of faculty, students, alumni, and employers. ^ Questionnaires on the evaluation of curriculum at technical junior colleges were developed for use in this specific case. Data were collected from the sample described above and analyzed utilizing ANOVA, T-Tests and crosstabulations. Findings are presented which indicate that there is room for improvement in terms of meeting individual students' needs. ^ Using Stufflebeam's CIPP model for curriculum evaluation it was determined that the curriculum was adequate in terms of the knowledge and skills imparted to students. However, students were dissatisfied with the rigidity of the curriculum and the lack of opportunity to satisfy the individual needs of students. Employers were satisfied with both the academic preparation of students and their on the job performance. ^ In sum, the curriculum of the two-year banking and insurance technology programs of junior college in Taiwan was shown to have served adequately preparing a work force to enter businesses. It is now time to look toward the future and adapt the curriculum and instruction for the future needs of the ever evolving high-tech society. ^

The will to write: Students' and teachers' perceptions of writing

This study investigated the perceptions of writing among secondary and post-secondary students and their teachers. The focus was on students' writing philosophy and influences, perceptions of the writing process, and perceptions of student writing skills, high stakes assessment tests, and writing across the curriculum. ^ An ethnographic case study was used to investigate the perceptions of writing among ten students and their English teachers in two high schools, a community college, and a university. To establish balance and ethnic plurality, seven females and three males representing the four large ethnic groups in South Florida—African American, Haitian American, European American and Latino—participated. During one four-month term, data from written samples of students' writing, formal and informal interviews, a student focus group, field notes, classroom observations, and a “think-aloud” protocol were collected. ^ Four themes emerged. First, Florida's writing assessment test has a negative influence on students' perceptions of writing. Students' motivation and attitudes as well as their confidence in their abilities were affected by practice and preparation in “recital writing.” Second, writing is a vehicle of social and personal transformation. Students believed that writing is a mean to connect to others and to create change in schools and communities. Third, students lacked the ability to connect writing, thinking and learning. Although students and teachers agree with statements about this connection, students failed to see the relevance of thinking and learning through writing in current or future courses, or in their future careers. Finally, writing context, teachers, schools, peers and gender influenced writing perceptions. Students believed that their writing philosophy, writing process, and perceptions of writing in academia and in the workplace are connected to these five factors. ^ The effect of the Florida writing test pervades students' and teachers' writing perceptions, making a stronger case for writing across the curriculum than previous research. Writing should help students see knowledge as interrelated, honor students' interests and values, and build relationships between and among students, schools and communities. In designing and implementing methods that support and sustain student writing, teachers should provide students with multiple opportunities to expand knowledge, learning, and connection through writing. ^

Predictors of first semester attrition and their relation to retention of generic associate degree nursing students

In community college nursing programs the high rate of attrition was a major concern to faculty and administrators. Since first semester attrition could lead to permanent loss of students and low retention in nursing programs, it was important to identify at-risk students early and develop proactive approaches to assist them to be successful. The goal of nursing programs was to graduate students who were eligible to take the national council licensing examination (RN). This was especially important during a time of critical shortage in the nursing workforce. ^ This study took place at a large, multi-campus community college, and used Tinto's (1975) Student Integration Model of persistence as the framework. A correlational study was conducted to determine whether the independent variables, past academic achievement, English proficiency, achievement tendency, weekly hours of employment and financial resources, could discriminate between the two grade groups, pass and not pass. Establishing the relationship between the selected variables and successful course completion might be used to reduce attrition and improve retention. Three research instruments were used to collect data. A Demographic Information form developed by the researcher was used to obtain academic data, the research questionnaire Measure of Achieving Tendency measured achievement motivation, and the Test of Adult Basic Education (TABE), Form 8, Level A, Tests 1, 4, and 5 measured the level of English proficiency. The Department of Nursing academic policy, requiring a minimum course grade of “C” or better was used to determine the final course outcome. A stepwise discriminant analysis procedure indicated that college language level and pre-semester grade point average were significant predictors of final course outcome. ^ Based on the findings of the study recommendations focused on assessing students' English proficiency prior to admission into the nursing program, an intensive remediation plan in language comprehension for at-risk students, and the selection of alternate textbooks and readings that more closely matched the English proficiency level of the students. A pilot study should be conducted to investigate the benefit of raising the admission grade point average. ^

The theory of margin as a predictor of success on the National Council Licensure Examination for Registered Nurses

The National Council Licensure Examination for Registered Nurses (NCLEX-RN) is the examination that all graduates of nursing education programs must pass to attain the title of registered nurse. Currently the NCLEX-RN passing rate is at an all-time low (81%) for first-time test takers (NCSBN, 2004); amidst a nationwide shortage of registered nurses (Glabman, 2001). Because of the critical need to supply greater numbers of professional nurses, and the potential accreditation ramifications that low NCLEX-RN passing rates can have on schools of nursing and graduates, this research study tests the effectiveness of a predictor model. This model is based upon the theoretical framework of McClusky's (1959) theory of margin (ToM), with the hope that students found to be at-risk for NCLEX-RN failure can be identified and remediated prior to taking the actual licensure examination. To date no theory based predictor model has been identified that predicts success on the NCLEX-RN. ^ The model was tested using prerequisite course grades, nursing course grades and scores on standardized examinations for the 2003 associate degree nursing graduates at a urban community college (N = 235). Success was determined through the reporting of pass on the NCLEX-RN examination by the Florida Board of Nursing. Point biserial correlations tested model assumptions regarding variable relationships, while logistic regression was used to test the model's predictive power. ^ Correlations among variables were significant and the model accounted for 66% of variance in graduates' success on the NCLEX-RN with 98% prediction accuracy. Although certain prerequisite course grades and nursing course grades were found to be significant to NCLEX-RN success, the overall model was found to be most predictive at the conclusion of the academic program of study. The inclusion of the RN Assessment Examination, taken during the final semester of course work, was the most significant predictor of NCLEX-RN success. Success on the NCLEX-RN allows graduates to work as registered nurses, reflects positively on a school's academic performance record, and supports the appropriateness of the educational program's goals and objectives. The study's findings support potential other uses of McClusky's theory of margin as a predictor of program outcome in other venues of adult education. ^

Development and validation of an instrument to predict online student success using faculty perceptions

Distance learning is growing and transforming educational institutions. The increasing use of distance learning by higher education institutions and particularly community colleges coupled with the higher level of student attrition in online courses than in traditional classrooms suggests that increased attention should be paid to factors that affect online student course completion. The purpose of the study was to develop and validate an instrument to predict community college online student course completion based on faculty perceptions, yielding a prediction model of online course completion rates. Social Presence and Media Richness theories were used to develop a theoretically-driven measure of online course completion. This research study involved surveying 311 community college faculty who taught at least one online course in the past 2 years. Email addresses of participating faculty were provided by two south Florida community colleges. Each participant was contacted through email, and a link to an Internet survey was given. The survey response rate was 63% (192 out of 303 available questionnaires). Data were analyzed through factor analysis, alpha reliability, and multiple regression. The exploratory factor analysis using principal component analysis with varimax rotation yielded a four-factor solution that accounted for 48.8% of the variance. Consistent with Social Presence theory, the factors with their percent of variance in parentheses were: immediacy (21.2%), technological immediacy (11.0%), online communication and interactivity (10.3%), and intimacy (6.3%). Internal consistency of the four factors was calculated using Cronbach's alpha (1951) with reliability coefficients ranging between .680 and .828. Multiple regression analysis yielded a model that significantly predicted 11% of the variance of the dependent variable, the percentage of student who completed the online course. As indicated in the literature (Johnson & Keil, 2002; Newberry, 2002), Media Richness theory appears to be closely related to Social Presence theory. However, elements from this theory did not emerge in the factor analysis.