Measuring food access in Melbourne: access to healthy and fast foods by car, bus and foot in an urban municipality in Melbourne

Access to healthy food can be an important determinant of a healthy diet. This paper describes the assessment of access to healthy and unhealthy foods using a GIS accessibility programme in a large outer municipality of Melbourne. Access to a major supermarket was used as a proxy for access to a healthy diet and fast food outlet as proxy for access to unhealthy food. Our results indicated that most (>80%) residents lived within an 8–10 min car journey of a major supermarket i.e. have good access to a healthy diet. However, more advantaged areas had closer access to supermarkets, conversely less advantaged areas had closer access to fast food outlets. These findings have application for urban planners, public health practitioners and policy makers.

The relevance of role models to older aged generation Y consumers

This study assesses the relevance of role models, specifically sports role models, and the related concepts of anti-heroes and gender to Generation Y consumers in the older age group of 18-29 year olds. A qualitative study, following a post-positivist inquiry paradigm was conducted. The specific research strategy used was grounded theory, utilising deductive thought processes coupled with the process of constant comparison. A series of semi-structured in-depth interviews were carried out. Results suggest that direct relevance to the subject under investigation is a key determinant of role model choice. Gender is also found to have significant effect, as is media, both in the creation of role models and anti-heroes.

A new broad composite model of regional economic development as a framework for research

The mechanism of regional economic development has been studied extensively by economists, geographers, town planners and other academics. The existing wide varieties of theories into regional economic development are insufficient on their own in explaining how a region can develop and prosper. Each theory has evaluated a few facets of regional economic development. Research from these different perspectives is narrow and prevents any cross-fertilization of research from all these diverse
theories.

Recognition of multiple factors affecting the development process has led the author to create a new broad composite model of regional economic development. The paper first sets out to describe and explain this broad composite model. Each of the components of this new model draws heavily upon seminal work in the field. This model proposes three rings. Each ring is at a different level of abstraction. The determinants of development described in each ring can influence each and every other determinant of development shown in the three ring structure. This model recognises that development in any centre, regional or urban, nascent or established is a composite end result of the complex interplay of all the determinants of development.

The paper then goes on to show how this model can provide a broad holistic approach to regional economic development that can assist researchers in their attempts to understand and link the various theories of regional economic development.

Changes in body composition as determinants of longitudinal changes in bone mineral measures in 8 to 26 year old female twins

Between 1990 and 1998, we conducted a longitudinal study of 286 female twins aged 8 to 25 years at baseline (60 monozygotic (MZ) pairs, 44 dizygotic (DZ) pairs and 78 unpaired twins), measured on average 2.4 times (range 2–6) with an average of 1.8 years between measurements (range 0.7–6.7 years). Areal bone mineral density (ABMD) at the lumbar spine, total hip and femoral neck, total body bone mineral content (BMC), total body soft tissue composition (lean mass and fat mass) were measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, and height and menarchial status were also recorded. Median annual changes in height were negligible at 4 years post-menarche. During the “linear growth” period up to 4 years post-menarche, ABMD at the lumbar spine, total hip and femoral neck increased with annual change in lean mass by 1.7 (S.E. 0.1), 1.4 (0.1) and 1.0 (0.1) percent per kilogram per year, respectively (all p<0.001), independently of changes in fat mass or height. During the “post-linear growth” period, ABMD at the total hip and femoral neck increased with annual change in fat mass by 0.3 (0.1) and 0.5 (0.1) percent per kilogram per year (all p<0.01), independent of change in lean mass. Annual changes in total body BMC were associated with annual changes in lean mass (1.9 (0.2) percent per kilogram), in fat mass (1.3 (0.2) percent per kilogram) and in height (0.7) (0.2) percent per centimeter) during linear growth, and in fat mass (1.0 (0.1)) and lean mass (0.6 (0.1)) percent per kilogram post-linear growth (all p<0.001). We conclude that changes in bone mineral measures are strongly associated with changes in lean mass during linear growth, while post-linear growth, changes in fat mass are the predominant, although weaker, predictor. These findings suggest that the strong cross-sectional association between bone mineral measures and lean mass is established during growth and development, and that fat mass emerges as a more powerful determinant of bone change in healthy adult females.

Fundamental determinants of the Australian price-earnings multiple

This paper is the first attempt to investigate the factors fundamental to the setting of the price–earnings (P–E) multiple for the Australian stock market. The quarterly P–E ratio for the ASX 200 index is used as a measure of the market wide P–E multiple. It is demonstrated that a large portion of the variation in the P–E multiple can be explained by the dividend payout ratio, interest rates and GDP growth rates. In addition, consumers' confidence—a leading indicator of future growth opportunities, the Australian–US exchange rate—a key determinant of the competitiveness of domestic companies, and volatility of domestic market returns—a risk factor, have incremental explanatory power.

Evidence of metacognitive awareness in young children who have experienced a repeated event

Two studies examined children's confidence judgments in the accuracy of their memories after repeated experience of an event. Children aged 5 to 6 years took part in an event once or four times, were provided with misinformation either shortly after (Study 1) or a while after (Study 2), and interviewed with yes/no recognition questions 3 months later. Children in the repeated-experience conditions were highly confident of their accurate responses to questions about items that were identical rather than variable across occurrences, and this discrimination was best at the shorter delay. The results show that children were able to metacognitively monitor the accuracy of their responses to qualitatively different kinds of details, and indicate that age is not the only determinant of metacognitive awareness after being misled. Rather, the nature of event representations must also be considered.

Voices of the Poor: Poverty and Growth in Albania

This paper uses three waves of panel surveys at the household level to study growth and poverty in Albania over the period 2002-2004. It attempts to answer two main questions. The first question is directed at finding the micro determinants of growth and aims to expose the obstacles households face to improve their economic situation. The main focus of the analysis is to investigate the importance of health, education, and infrastructure indicators for income growth. The second question asks whether growth in Albania during the period 2002-2004 has been pro-poor. I find that there is some evidence for a convergence of incomes and a pro-poor growth, which has led to a substantial decrease in the number of people living under the poverty line. I also find that infrastructure has not been an important determinant for income mobility, and neither has health. Only the higher education of poor urban households seems to have affected prospects for growing out of poverty, and unexpectedly, the relationship is negative.

Using multi-criteria decision analysis in natural resource management

The proposed volume aims to provide useful insights on the use of Multi-criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) in natural resource management by examining a number of empirical applications for several countries and natural resources. There is increasing interest among researchers and policy makers in using MCDA to evaluate complex management issues and problems. While several books with empirical applications have been published, these applications are very recent. Evidence from major studies suggests that MCDA approaches to the management of water, forestry, wetland and other natural resources have substantially improved the design and implementation of natural resource and environmental policies. Using innovative approaches, such as MCDA, to manage complex natural systems will enhance our understanding and management of those systems. Stakeholder involvement is an important determinant of successful resource management, and MCDA provides a useful and effective framework for getting stakeholders involved in resource management decisions. Despite the general acceptance of the role of MCDA in natural resource management, problems remain in applying these techniques. Problems include difficulties in applying the techniques, eliciting required information, lack of suitable measures for environmental variables, and development of innovative methods to simplify the use of MCDA. The proposed book examines several applications of MCDA for several countries (Australia, USA and Europe) and natural resources, including forestry, water resources and vegetation.

People, places and public health : evaluating the benefits of civic environmentalism in an urban local government context

Recent political, economic and social trends pose threats to the sustainability both of ecosystems and of human health. Australia’s environmental management record is poor, and while by international standards Australians enjoy good health, this is variable (AIHW, 2000). Within developed nations, heart disease, depression, alcohol dependence and stroke are major health issues (Mathers et al. 2002). In Australia, mental disorder is the number one contributor to the disease burden (Vos & Mathers 2000). Recent research has highlighted the role of social capital as a key determinant of health (Kawachi et al., 1997). Despite this, Putnam (1995) observes that social connectedness and civic engagement are in decline. People have less time for leisure and for volunteering, as many juggle paid work and caring for children. Anecdotal evidence suggests that engagement in civic environmentalism has human health benefits, relating to a combination of exposure to natural environments and increased social capital (Maller, Brown, Townsend & St. Leger, 2002). This link is supported by Furnass (1996) who defines well-being as including: satisfactory human relationships, meaningful occupation, opportunities for contact with nature, creative expression, and making a positive contribution to human society. Research conducted by Deakin University confirms the efficacy of linking people and places through civic environmentalism for addressing both ecosystem sustainability and human health and wellbeing. The research has included a pilot study to explore the human health benefits of membership of a local parkland ‘Friends’ group, and a more detailed follow-up study. The aims of the pilot study included:- To identify the range of motivations for joining the Friends group;- To document members’ perceptions of the benefits gained from membership of the group;- To assess the potential for Friends groups to be used as an ‘upstream’ health promotion measure.Face-to-face interviews were conducted with eleven members of a ‘Friends’ group in the eastern suburbs of Melbourne. Data was analysed thematically and key findings included:- Motivations: environmental; social; and pragmatic.- General benefits: community belonging; personal satisfaction; learning opportunities; physical activity; and better environment.- Health benefits: physical health; mental health; and social support. There was unanimous support for the use of ‘Friends’ groups as a tool for health promotion.The follow-up study, in the western suburbs of Melbourne, expanded on the pilot study by measuring the group’s social capital and by collecting self-report data on levels of health service usage. Data was collected through face-to-face interviews and a questionnaire. The findings were similar to the pilot study in relation to the motivations, benefits and the health promotion potential of such groups. However, health service usage data highlighted an apparent anomaly: while respondents perceived significant health benefits, some were nevertheless utilising health services at a relatively high level. This poses some questions requiring further exploration: Is this due to the poorer baseline health of the high health service usage members compared with their fellow members? Does involvement in the group offer health benefits that enable people who would otherwise be too unhealthy to participate in community groups to continue such involvement?If this is the case, then we may do well to look to locally-based mechanisms for promoting ecological sustainability as a tool also for promoting human health. Instead of prescribing a pill, connecting people and places through engagement with a local friends group may address our health problems at the same time as addressing local environmental problems.

Revisiting capital structure theory : a test of pecking order and static order trade-of model from Malaysian capital market

This study revisits the capital structure theory and test Pecking Order Hypothesis (POH) and Static Order Trade-off theory (STOT) using Malaysian Listed firms over a period from 1999 to 2002. The evidence from pecking order model suggests that the internal fund deficiency is the most important determinant that possibly explains the issuance of new debt in Malaysian capital market despite the lower predicting power.  While static trade off-model is not fit to explain the issuance of new debt issue in Malaysian capital market. This is an interesting findings that confirm the fact that Malaysian firms do not too much care about tax-shield benefit derive from employ both debt and non-debt tax-shield. The finn's size, which is used to neutralize the size effect, appears to provide some explanation for the variation in its capital structure policy choice; however asset structure and growth no evidence of static-order-trade-off is observed in Malaysian capital market.

Environmental determinants of healthy eating : in need of theory and evidence

In order to promote healthful nutrition, insight is needed into the determinants of nutrition behaviours. Behavioural determinant research and behavioural nutrition interventions have focused mostly on individual-level motivational factors. It has been argued that the individual's socio-cultural and physical environments may be the main determinants of nutrition behaviours. However, the theoretical basis and empirical evidence for environmental determinants of nutrition behaviours are not strong. The present paper is a narrative review informed by a series of systematic reviews and recent original studies on associations between environmental factors and nutrition behaviours to provide an overview and discussion of the evidence for environmental correlates and predictors of nutrition behaviour. Although the number of studies on potential environmental determinants of nutrition behaviours has increased steeply over the last decades, they include only a few well-designed studies with validated measures and guided by sound theoretical frameworks. The preliminary evidence from the available systematic reviews indicates that socio-cultural environmental factors defining what is socially acceptable, desirable and appropriate to eat may be more important for healthful eating than physical environments that define the availability and accessibility of foods. It is concluded that there is a lack of well-designed studies on environmental determinants of healthful eating behaviours. Preliminary evidence indicates that social environmental factors may be more important than physical environmental factors for healthful eating. Better-designed studies are needed to further build evidence-based theory on environmental determinants to guide the development of interventions to promote healthful eating.

Femoral sulcus angle and increased patella facet cartilage volume in an osteoarthritic population

Objective
The patellofemoral joint is an example of an incongruent articulation commonly affected by osteoarthritis (OA). The relationship between femoral sulcus angle and the development and progression of patellofemoral OA is unclear. The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between the femoral sulcus angle at baseline and patella cartilage volume at baseline and at 2-year follow-up among community based adults with established knee OA.

Methods
One hundred subjects had magnetic resonance imaging of their symptomatic knee at baseline and at 2-year follow-up. From these images, patella cartilage volume was determined. Radiographic skyline views of the patellofemoral joint were taken at baseline to measure the femoral sulcus angle.

Results
For every 1° increase in the femoral sulcus angle (i.e., as the sulcus angle became more shallow) there was an associated 9.1 mm3 (95% CI 3.1, 15.0) increase in medial patella cartilage volume at baseline (P = 0.003). There was a similar trend that approached statistical significance between the femoral sulcus angle and the lateral patella facet cartilage volume at baseline (P = 0.09). There was no association between the femoral sulcus angle at baseline and the change in patella cartilage volume over 2 years in either patellofemoral compartment.

Conclusion
These results infer that the femoral sulcus angle is a cross-sectional determinant of the amount of patella cartilage, but is not a major determinant of the annual change of patella cartilage volume among people with knee OA. These data suggest that a shallower sulcus in the context of established OA may be an advantageous anatomical variant. Further longitudinal studies are required to determine the role of the femoral sulcus angle in OA.

The calcineurin signal transduction pathway is essential for successful muscle regeneration in mdx dystrophic mice

Although mdx mice share the same genetic defect and lack dystrophin expression as in Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), their limb muscles have a high regenerative capacity that ensures a more benign phenotype and essentially normal function. The cellular pathways responsible for this enhanced regenerative capacity are unknown. We tested the hypothesis that the calcineurin signal transduction pathway is essential for the successful regeneration following severe degeneration observed in the limb muscles of young mdx mice (2–4 weeks old) and that inhibition of this pathway using cyclosporine A (CsA) would exacerbate the dystrophic pathology. Eighteen-day-old mdx and C57BL/10 mice were treated with CsA for 16 days. CsA administration severely disrupted muscle regeneration in mdx mice, but had minimal effect in C57BL/10 mice. Muscles from CsA-treated mdx mice had fewer centrally nucleated fibers and extensive collagen, connective tissue, and mononuclear cell infiltration than muscles from vehicle-treated littermates. The deleterious effects of CsA on muscle morphology were accompanied by a 30–35% decrease in maximal force producing capacity. Taken together, these observations indicate that the calcineurin signal transduction pathway is a significant determinant of successful skeletal muscle regeneration in young mdx mice. Up-regulating this pathway may have clinical significance for DMD.

Building social capital in groups : facilitating skill development for natural resource management

Analysis of the experiences of four farmer groups set up to learn how to jointly manage local natural resource issues shows that the groups are going though two simultaneous processes. One builds technical competency in natural resource management and the other is the underpinning social process that allows the groups to make decisions and work collectively, which builds social capital. Natural resource management practitioners and farmers are practical people. They are likely to be more comfortable with a process that develops monitoring tools and benchmarks for natural resource management than a process of group development and social capital formation. Yet the two are intrinsically linked. This paper reflects on and analyses the experience of establishing and working with farmer groups as they go through a process of identifying environmental issues, setting and monitoring environmental benchmarks and identifying and implementing sustainable farming practices to meet the benchmarks.

Two questions emerged from the analysis. First, how do the four groups compare to other measures of effective natural resource management groups? Second, what are the characteristics of the groups that make them more or less effective and what has occurred in the groups (either before or during this project) to make them more or less effective? Social capital emerges as a key determinant of group effectiveness. Social capital is most effective when it comprises a balance of bonding and bridging networks, and includes shared values in relation to the purpose of the group.

Policy makers and extension workers need to understand the link between the two simultaneous processes occurring as people come together in groups to define and implement best practice at a local level, and how to use knowledge of social processes when designing the more concrete process of developing and implementing best practice monitoring and benchmarking with groups. An understanding of how people build social capital as they work in groups will assist with designing and facilitating group projects in a range of contexts, not only natural resource management.

An integrated model of subnational regional and urban economic development : framework of analysis

The mechanism of subnational regional and urban economic development has been studied extensively by economists, geographers, town planners and other academics. The existing widely varying theories of regional economic development are insufficient on their own in explaining how a region can develop and prosper. Each theory has evaluated a few facets of regional economic development. Research from these different perspectives is narrow and prevents any cross-fertilization of research from these diverse theories. Recognition of multiple factors affecting the development process has led the author to create an integrated model of regional and urban economic development. The essay first sets out to describe and explain this integrated model. Each of the components of this new model draws heavily upon seminal work in the field. This model proposes three rings. Each ring is at a different level of abstraction. The determinants of development described in each ring can influence each and every other determinant of development shown in the three-ring structure. This model recognizes that development in any centre, be it regional or urban, nascent or established, is a composite end result of the complex interplay of all the determinants. The essay then goes on to show how this model can provide a broad holistic approach to regional economic development that can assist researchers in their attempts to understand and link its various theories.