Advances in apple culture worldwide

Over the last 60 years, planting densities for apple have increased as improved management systems have been developed. Dwarfing rootstocks have been the key to the dramatic changes in tree size, spacing and early production. The Malling series of dwarfing rootstocks (M.9 and M.26) have been the most important dwarfing rootstocks in the world but are poorly adapted in some areas of the world and they are susceptible to the bacterial disease fire blight and the soil disease complex, apple replant disease which limits their uses in some areas. Rootstock breeding programs in several parts of the world are developing improved rootstocks with resistance to fire blight, and replant disease, and improved cold hardiness and yield efficiency. A second important trend has been the increasing importance of new cultivars. New cultivars have provided opportunities for higher prices until they are over-produced. A new trend is the "variety club" in which variety owners manage the production and marketing of a new unique cultivar to bring higher prices to the growers and variety owners. This has led to many fruit growers being unable to plant or grow some new cultivars. Important rootstock and cultivar genes have been mapped and can be used in marker assisted selection of future rootstock and cultivar selections. Other important improvements in apple culture include the development of pre-formed trees, the development of minimal pruning strategies and limb angle bending which have also contributed to the dramatic changes in early production in the 2nd-5th years after planting. Studies on light interception and distribution have led to improved tree forms with better fruit quality. Simple pruning strategies and labor positioning platform machines have resulted in partial mechanization of pruning which has reduced management costs. Improved plant growth regulators for thinning and the development of a thinning prediction model based on tree carbohydrate balance have improved the ability to produce the optimum fruit size and crop load. Other new plant growth regulators have also allowed control of shoot growth, control of preharvest fruit drop and control of fruit softening in storage after harvest. As we look to the future, there will be continued incremental improvement in our understanding of plant physiology that will lead to continued incremental improvements in orchard management but there is likely to be dramatic changes in orchard production systems through genomics research and genetic engineering. A greater understanding of the genetic control of dwarfing, precocity, rooting, vegetative growth, flowering, fruit growth and disease resistance which will lead to new varieties and rootstocks which are less expensive to grow and manage.

Breeding, genetic and genomic of citrus for disease resistance

Although the citriculture is one of the most important economic activities in Brazil, it is based on a small number of varieties. This fact has contributed for the vulnerability of the culture regarding the phytosanitary problems. A higher number of varieties/genotypes with potential for commercial growing, either for the industry or fresh market, has been one of the main objectives of citrus breeding programs. The genetic breeding of citrus has improved, in the last decades, due to the possibility of an association between biotechnological tools and classical methods of breeding. The use of molecular markers for early selection of zygotic seedlings from controlled crosses resulted in the possibility of selection of a high number of new combination and, as a consequence, the establishment of a great number of hybrids in field experiments. The faster new tools are incorporated in the program, the faster is possibility to reach new genotypes that can be tested as a new variety. Good traits should be kept or incorporate, whereas bad traits have to be excluded or minimized in the new genotype. Scion and rootstock can not be considered separately, and graft compatibility, fruit quality and productivity are essential traits to be evaluated in the last stages of the program. The mapping of QTLs has favored breeding programs of several perennial species and in citrus it was possible to map several characteristics with qualitative and quantitative inheritance. The existence of linkage maps and QTLs already mapped, the development of EST and BAC library and the sequencing of the Citrus complete genome altogether make very demanding and urgent the exploration of such data to launch a wider genetic study of citrus. The rising of information on genome of several organisms has opened new approaches looking for integration between breeding, genetic and genome. Genome assisted selection (GAS) involves more than gene or complete genome sequencing and is becoming an import support in breeding programs of annual and perennial species. An huge information amount can be derivate from genome analysis. The use and benefit of such informations will depend on the genetic basis of the breeding program.

Common Quail (Coturnix coturnix) post-breeding movements and migration patterns: from knowledge to management.

Hemos investigado los patrones de los movimientos postcría de la codorniz común (Coturnix coturnix) en la península ibérica con el fin de describir su fenología de paso migratorio y algunas características fisiológicas de los individuos. Esta información es necesaria para un ajuste óptimo de los períodos de caza. Hemos trabajado a partir de dos conjuntos de datos: a) capturas efectuadas en una zona que no es de cría (Garraf) de agosto a octubre en 2009 y 2010; b) recuperaciones, posteriores a la presunta época de cría, de individuos anillados en Europa y recapturados en España durante el período 1933-2005. Los resultados obtenidos muestran que los movimientos postcría en Garraf están formados por dos oleadas: una primera, que se produce sobre el 10 VIII, formada principalmente por jóvenes del año inactivos sexualmente que no son fisiológicamente migrantes; y una segunda, mucho más intensa, que se produce sobre el 17 IX, formada principalmente por migrantes jóvenes del año inactivos sexualmente. La época de caza en España tiene lugar principalmente durante la primera oleada, preservando el paso de los migrantes provenientes de España y de otros países europeos. La información de los movimientos postcría en otras regiones españolas y en otros países europeos en los que la codorniz común es una especie cinegética popular, permitiría mejorar el ajuste entre el período de caza y la migración, proporcionando recomendaciones de gestión cinegética más precisas para esta especie.

Lipid peroxidation and seed emergency in progenies of the yellow passion fruit plant

The objective was to evaluate the percentage of emergency plantlets and lipid peroxidation in seeds of 29 half-sib progenies of yellow passion fruit (Passiflora edulis Sims.) after 24 months under storage. The experimental design was completely randomized, with four replications of 50 seeds each, from which the treatments were the progenies (1-29). The evaluation of the percent plantlet emergency was accomplished at 14 and 28 days after sowing. The lipid peroxidation of the seeds was expressed as malondialdehyde (MDA) content that was determined by the TBARS method. Approximately 21% of those half-sib progenies maintained the viability of their seeds for twenty-four months under storage. The results point out a remarkable genetic variability for vigor and emergency of the yellow passion fruit plantlets, with occurrence of individuals with high and other ones with low capacity to maintaining the physiologic quality of their seeds after storage.

Yield mapping, soil fertility and tree gaps in an orange orchard

The current high competition on Citrus industry demands from growers new management technologies for superior efficiency and sustainability. In this context, precision agriculture (PA) has developed techniques based on yield mapping and management systems that recognize field spatial variability, which contribute to increase profitability of commercial crops. Because spatial variability is often not perceived the orange orchards are still managed as uniform and adoption of PA technology on citrus farms is low. Thus, the objective of the present study was to characterize the spatial variability of three factors: fruit yield, soil fertility and occurrence of plant gaps caused by either citrus blight or huanglongbing (HLB) in a commercial Valencia orchard in Brotas, São Paulo State, Brazil. Data from volume, geographic coordinates and representative area of the bags used on harvest were recorded to generate yield points that were then interpolated to produce the yield map. Soil chemical characteristics were studied by analyzing samples collected along planting rows and inter-rows in 24 points distributed in the field. A map of density of tree gaps was produced by georeferencing individual gaps and later by counting the number of gaps within 500 m² cells. Data were submitted to statistical and geostatistical analyses. A t test was used to compare means of soil chemical characteristics between sampling regions. High variation on yield and density of tree gaps was observed from the maps. It was also demonstrated overlapping regions of high density of plant absence and low fruit yield. Soil fertility varied depending on the sampling region in the orchard. The spatial variability found on yield, soil fertility and on disease occurrence demonstrated the importance to adopt site specific nutrient management and disease control as tools to guarantee efficiency of fruit production.

Strawberry yield submitted to different root pruning intensities of transplants

This study aimed to evaluate the growth of plants and the precocity of strawberry production under different root pruning intensities at planting time. Bare roots plants with 12 millimeters crown diameter produced in nurseries from the Patagonia region, Argentina were used. The planting was carried out on May 12th 2010 into experimental plots with non-fumigated soil. The treatments consisted of three cultivars (Camarosa, Florida Festival and Camino Real) and three pruning intensities (1/3, 2/3 and no pruning) on the total root length of the plants. The experimental design used was a randomized block design in a 3x3 factorial arrangement with three replications and 12 plants per plot and density of 11.1 plants m-2. Mature fruits were harvested from July 15th to December 14th 2010 and the production of fresh fruit was determined. There was no significative interaction between cultivars and pruning intensity. 'Camarosa' and 'Florida Festival' plants showed precocity and had the most abundant and heavier fruits during the precocity period. The different root pruning intensities did not affect the assessed variables. It was concluded that, in order to facilitate strawberry planting of the cultivars Camarosa, Florida Festival and Camino Real root pruning is possible, with no damages on plant growth and development, precocity and early fruit production.

Biological Flora of the British Isles: Ambrosia artemisiifolia

1. This account presents information on all aspects of the biology of Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. (Common ragweed) that are relevant to understanding its ecology. The main topics are presented within the standard framework of the Biological Flora of the British Isles: distribution, habitat, communities, responses to biotic factors, responses to environment, structure and physiology, phenology, floral and seed characters, herbivores and disease, history, and conservation, impacts and management. 2. Ambrosia artemisiifolia is a monoecious, wind-pollinated, annual herb native to North America whose height varies from 10 cm to 2.5 m according to environmental conditions. It has erect, branched stems and pinnately lobed leaves. Spike-like racemes of male capitula composed of staminate (male) florets terminate the stems, while cyme-like clusters of pistillate (female) florets are arranged in groups the axils of main and lateral stem leaves. 3. Seeds require prolonged chilling to break dormancy. Following seedling emergence in spring, the rate of vegetative growth depends on temperature, but development occurs over a wide thermal range. In temperate European climates, male and female flowers are produced from summer to early autumn (July to October). 4. Ambrosia artemisiifolia is sensitive to freezing. Late spring frosts kill seedlings and the first autumn frosts terminate the growing season. It has a preference for dry soils of intermediate to rich nutrient level. 5. Ambrosia artemisiifolia was introduced into Europe with seed imports from North America in the 19th century. Since World War II, it has become widespread in temperate regions of Europe and is now abundant in open, disturbed habitats as a ruderal and agricultural weed. 6. Recently, the N. American ragweed leaf beetle (Ophraella communa) has been detected in southern Switzerland and northern Italy. This species appears to have the capacity to substantially reduce growth and seed production of A. artemisiifolia. 7. In heavily infested regions of Europe, A. artemisiifolia causes substantial crop-yield losses and its copious, highly allergenic pollen creates considerable public health problems. There is consensus among models that climate change will allow its northward and up-hill spread in Europe.

Application of nitrogen sources on grapevines and effect on yield and must composition

This study was carried out to evaluate the yield, total N content in leaves and must composition of grapes from the Cabernet Sauvignon variety subjected to the application of urea and organic compost. Cabernet Sauvignon grapevines in Rosário do Sul, RS, Brazil, in 2008, 2009 and 2010 were subjected to annual application of 40 kg N ha-1 in the form of organic compost and urea, and compared to unfertilized grapevines. In the 2008/09, 2009/10 and 2010/11 crop seasons, leaves were collected for analysis of total N content. At maturation of the grapes, the yield and quality attributes of the must were evaluated. The application of N sources, especially organic compost, increased the N content in the whole leaf at full flowering. Application of organic compost and urea has little effect on grape yield and does not affect the total nutrient content in the must, nor the enological attributes.

EMS mutagenesis in mature seed-derived rice calli as a new method for rapidly obtaining tilling mutant populations.

Background: TILLING (Targeting Induced Local Lesions IN Genomes) is a reverse genetic method that combines chemical mutagenesis with high-throughput genome-wide screening for point mutation detection in genes of interest. However, this mutation discovery approach faces a particular problem which is how to obtain a mutant population with a sufficiently high mutation density. Furthermore, plant mutagenesis protocols require two successive generations (M1, M2) for mutation fixation to occur before the analysis of the genotype can begin. Results: Here, we describe a new TILLING approach for rice based on ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS) mutagenesis of mature seed-derived calli and direct screening of in vitro regenerated plants. A high mutagenesis rate was obtained (i.e. one mutation in every 451 Kb) when plants were screened for two senescence-related genes. Screening was carried out in 2400 individuals from a mutant population of 6912. Seven sense change mutations out of 15 point mutations were identified. Conclusions: This new strategy represents a significant advantage in terms of time-savings (i.e. more than eight months), greenhouse space and work during the generation of mutant plant populations. Furthermore, this effective chemical mutagenesis protocol ensures high mutagenesis rates thereby saving in waste removal costs and the total amount of mutagen needed thanks to the mutagenesis volume reduction.

GROWTH, YIELD AND POSTHARVEST QUALITY OF WAX APPLE AS AFFECTED BY NAPHTHALENE ACETIC ACID APPLICATION

Results of this study represent the first report of the effect of Naphthalene Acetic Acid (NAA) on the pre and post harvest quality of wax apple fruit. The wax apple trees were spray treated with 0, 5, 10 and 20 mg L-1 NAA under field conditions during 2008 to 2011. The experiments were carried out in Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with six replications. Leaf chlorophyll content, chlorophyll fluorescence, photosynthetic yield, net photosynthetic rate, drymatter content of leaves and total soluble solids and K+content of wax apple fruits were significantly increased after treatments with 10 mg L-1. Polygalacturonase activity significantly decreased with NAA treatments. The application of 5 mg L-1 NAA increased 27% more bud and reduced 42% less fruit drop compared to the control. In addition, higher protein and phosphate synthase activity of leaves, fruit set, fruit growth, larger fruit size and yield were recorded in NAA treated plants. In storage, treated fruits exhibited higher TSS and firmness and less weight loss, browning, titratable acidity, respiration and ethylene production than the control. It is concluded that spraying with 5 and 10 mg L-1 NAA once a week under field conditions produced better fruit growth and yield of the wax apple and maintained better fruit quality in postharvest storage.

Agricultural land use and human presence around breeding sites increase stress-hormone levels and decrease body mass in barn owl nestlings.

Human activities can have a suite of positive and negative effects on animals and thus can affect various life history parameters. Human presence and agricultural practice can be perceived as stressors to which animals react with the secretion of glucocorticoids. The acute short-term secretion of glucocorticoids is considered beneficial and helps an animal to redirect energy and behaviour to cope with a critical situation. However, a long-term increase of glucocorticoids can impair e.g. growth and immune functions. We investigated how nestling barn owls (Tyto alba) are affected by the surrounding landscape and by human activities around their nest sites. We studied these effects on two response levels: (a) the physiological level of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis, represented by baseline concentrations of corticosterone and the concentration attained by a standardized stressor; (b) fitness parameters: growth of the nestlings and breeding performance. Nestlings growing up in intensively cultivated areas showed increased baseline corticosterone levels late in the season and had an increased corticosterone release after a stressful event, while their body mass was decreased. Nestlings experiencing frequent anthropogenic disturbance had elevated baseline corticosterone levels, an increased corticosterone stress response and a lower body mass. Finally, breeding performance was better in structurally more diverse landscapes. In conclusion, anthropogenic disturbance affects offspring quality rather than quantity, whereas agricultural practices affect both life history traits.

Radial dose function of a 90Sr 90Y seed in water and A150: Comment on Calibration and characterization of beta-particle sources for intravascular brachytherapy

Intravascular brachytherapy with beta sources has become a useful technique to prevent restenosis after cardiovascular intervention. In particular, the Beta-Cath high-dose-rate system, manufactured by Novoste Corporation, is a commercially available 90Sr 90Y source for intravascular brachytherapy that is achieving widespread use. Its dosimetric characterization has attracted considerable attention in recent years. Unfortunately, the short ranges of the emitted beta particles and the associated large dose gradients make experimental measurements particularly difficult. This circumstance has motivated the appearance of a number of papers addressing the characterization of this source by means of Monte Carlo simulation techniques.

Daily activity of sardinian warbler sylvia melanocephala in the breeding season = Actividad diaria de la curruca cabecinegra sylvia melanocephala durante el periodo reproductor

El momento concreto del periodo reproductor puede incidir sobre la actividad diaria y los periodos de reposo de las aves paseriformes. Para investigar este aspecto, hemos analizado los movimientos diarios de 7 machos de curruca cabecinegra Sylvia melanocephala mediante radioseguimiento en un matorral mediterráneo. La actividad tiende en general a decrecer a lo largo del día aunque con algunas variaciones dependiendo del momento concreto del periodo reproductor de cada macho en particular. Se han registrado largos periodos de reposo que no dependen ni del estado reproductor ni del momento del día

Diagnosis of endocrine disease: High-yield thyroid fine-needle aspiration cytology: an update focused on ancillary techniques improving its accuracy.

Thyroid fine-needle aspiration (FNA) cytology is a fast growing field. One of the most developing areas is represented by molecular tests applied to cytological material. Patients that could benefit the most from these tests are those that have been diagnosed as 'indeterminate' on FNA. They could be better stratified in terms of malignancy risk and thus oriented with more confidence to the appropriate management. Taking in to consideration the need to improve and keep high the yield of thyroid FNA, professionals from various fields (i.e. molecular biologists, endocrinologists, nuclear medicine physicians and radiologists) are refining and fine-tuning their diagnostic instruments. In particular, all these developments aim at increasing the negative predictive value of FNA to improve the selection of patients for diagnostic surgery. These advances involve terminology, the application of next-generation sequencing to thyroid FNA, the use of immunocyto- and histo-chemistry, the development of new sampling techniques and the increasing use of nuclear medicine as well as molecular imaging in the management of patients with a thyroid nodule. Herein, we review the recent advances in thyroid FNA cytology that could be of interest to the 'thyroid-care' community, with particular focus on the indeterminate diagnostic category.

Subsurface drip irrigation emitter spacing effects on soil water redistribution, corn yield and water productivity

Emitter spacings of 0.3 to 0.6 m are commonly used for subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) of corn on the deep, silt loam soils of the U.S. Great Plains. Subsurface drip irrigation emitter spacings of 0.3, 0.6, 0.9 and 1.2 m were examined for the resulting differences in soil water redistribution, corn grain yield, yield components, seasonal water use, and water productivity in a 4‐year field study (2005 through 2008) at the Kansas State University Northwest Research‐Extension Center, Colby, Kansas. The results indicate that there is increased preferential water movement along the dripline (parallel) as compared to perpendicular to the dripline and that this phenomenon partially compensates for wider emitter spacings in terms of soil water redistribution. Corn yield and water productivity (WP) were not significantly affected by the emitter spacing with application of a full irrigation regime