Large-scale spatial patterns in the distribution of Collembola (Hexapoda) species in Antarctic terrestrial ecosystems

We tested whether the distribution of three common springtail species (Gressittacantha terranova, Gomphiocephalus hodgsoni and Friesea grisea) in Victoria Land (Antarctica) could be modelled as a function of latitude, longitude, altitude and distance from the sea.

Victoria Land, Ross Dependency, Antarctica.

Generalized linear models were constructed using species presence/absence data relative to geographical features (latitude, longitude, altitude, distance from sea) across the species' entire ranges. Model results were then integrated with the known phylogeography of each species and hypotheses were generated on the role of climate as a major driver of Antarctic springtail distribution.

Based on model selection using Akaike's information criterion, the species' distributions were: hump-shaped relative to longitude and monotonic with altitude for Gressittacantha terranova; hump-shaped relative to latitude and monotonic with altitude for Gomphiocephalus hodgsoni; and hump-shaped relative to longitude and monotonic with latitude, altitude and distance from the sea for Friesea grisea.

No single distributional pattern was shared by the three species. While distributions were partially a response to climatic spatial clines, the patterns observed strongly suggest that past geological events have influenced the observed distributions. Accordingly, present-day spatial patterns are likely to have arisen from the interaction of historical and environmental drivers. Future studies will need to integrate a range of spatial and temporal scales to further quantify their respective roles.

Modelling local-scale determinants and the probability of microarthropod species occurrence in Antarctic soils

Soil fauna in the extreme conditions of Antarctica consists of a few microinvertebrate species patchily distributed at different spatial scales. Populations of the prostigmatic mite Stereotydeus belli and the collembolan Gressittacantha terranova from northern Victoria Land (Antarctica) were used as models to study the effect of soil properties on microarthropod distributions. In agreement with the general assumption that the development and distribution of life in these ecosystems is mainly controlled by abiotic factors, we found that the probability of occurrence of S. belli depends on soil moisture and texture and on the sampling period (which affects the general availability of water); surprisingly, none of the analysed variables were significantly related to the G. terranova distribution. Based on our results and literature data, we propose a theoretical model that introduces biotic interactions among the major factors driving the local distribution of collembolans in Antarctic terrestrial ecosystems. (c) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The anatomy of Last Glacial Maximum climate variations in south Westland, New Zealand, derived from pollen records

We present pollen records from three sites in south Westland, New Zealand, that document past vegetation and inferred climate change between approximately 30,000 and 15,000 cal. yr BP. Detailed radiocarbon dating of the enclosing sediments at one of those sites, Galway tarn, provides a more robust chronology for the structure and timing of climate-induced vegetation change than has previously been possible in this region. The Kawakawa/Oruanui tephra, a key isochronous marker, affords a precise stratigraphic link across all three pollen records, while other tie points are provided by key pollen-stratigraphic changes which appear to be synchronous across all three sites. Collectively, the records show three episodes in which grassland, interpreted as indicating mostly cold subalpine to alpine conditions, was prevalent in lowland south Westland, separated by phases dominated by subalpine shrubs and montane-lowland trees, indicating milder interstadial conditions. Dating, expressed as a Bayesian-estimated single 'best' age followed in parentheses by younger/older bounds of the 95% confidence modelled age range, indicates that a cold stadial episode, whose onset was marked by replacement of woodland by grassland, occurred between 28,730 (29,390-28,500) and 25,470 (26,090-25,270) cal. yr BP (years before AD, 1950), prior to the deposition of the Kawakawa/Oruanui tephra. Milder interstadial conditions prevailed between 25,470 (26,090-25,270) and 24,400 (24,840-24,120) cal. yr BP and between 22,630 (22,930-22,340) and 21,980 (22,210-21,580) cal. yr BP, separated by a return to cold stadial conditions between 24,400 and 22,630 cal. yr BP. A final episode of grass-dominated vegetation, indicating cold stadial conditions, occurred from 21,980 (22,210-21,580) to 18,490 (18,670-17,950) cal. yr BP. The decline in grass pollen, indicating progressive climate amelioration, was well advanced by 17,370 (17,730-17,110) cal. yr BP, indicating that the onset of the termination in south Westland occurred sometime between ca 18,490 and ca 17,370 cal. yr BP. A similar general pattern of stadials and interstadials is seen, to varying degrees of resolution but generally with lesser chronological control, in many other paleoclimate proxy records from the New Zealand region. This highly resolved chronology of vegetation changes from southwestern New Zealand contributes to the examination of past climate variations in the southwest Pacific region. The stadial and interstadial episodes defined by south Westland pollen records represent notable climate variability during the latter part of the Last Glaciation. Similar climatic patterns recorded farther afield, for example from Antarctica and the Southern Ocean, imply that climate variations during the latter part of the Last Glaciation and the transition to the Holocene interglacial were inter-regionally extensive in the Southern Hemisphere and thus important to understand in detail and to place into a global context. © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Coleoptera and microbe biomass in Antarctic Dry Valley paleosols adjacent to the Inland Ice: Implications for Mars

Bulk paleosol samples collected from a Middle to Early Miocene moraine in the New Mountain area of the Dry Valleys, Antarctica, yielded Coleoptera exoskeletons and occasional endoskeletons showing considerable diagenetic effects along with several species of bacteria, all lodged in a dry-frozen but salt-rich horizon at shallow depth to the land surface. The till is at the older end of a chronologic sequence of glacial deposits, thought to have been deposited before the transition from wet-based to cold-based ice (similar to 15 Ma), and hence, entirely weathered in contact with the subaerial atmosphere. It is possible, though not absolutely verifiable, that the skeletons date from this early stage of emplacement having undergone modifications whenever light snowmelt occurred or salt concentrations lowered the freezing temperature to maintain water as liquid. Correlation of the Coleoptera species with cultured bacteria in the sample and the likelihood of co-habitation with Beauveria bassiani found in two adjacent, although younger paleosols, leads to new questions about the antiquity of the Coleoptera and the source of N and glucose from chitinase derived from the insects. The skeletons in the 831 section may date close to the oldest preserved chitin (Oligocene) yet found on Earth. While harsh Martian conditions make it seemingly intolerable for complex, multicellular organisms such as insects to exist in the near-surface and subaerially, life within similar cold, dry paleosol microenvironments (Cryosols) of Antarctica point to life potential for the Red Planet, especially when considering the relatively diverse microbe (bacteria and fungi) population. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The Carnian Humid Episode of the late Triassic: A Review

From 1989 to 1994 a series of papers outlined evidence for a brief episode of climate change from arid to humid, and then back to arid, during the Carnian Stage of the late Triassic. This time of climate change was compared to marine and terrestrial biotic changes, mainly extinction and then radiation of flora and fauna. Subsequently termed, albeit incorrectly, the Carnian Pluvial Event (CPE) by successive authors, interest in this episode of climatic change has increased steadily, with new evidence being published as well as several challenges to the theory. The exact nature of this humid episode, whether reflecting widespread precipitation or more local effects, as well as its ultimate cause remains equivocal. Bed-by-bed sampling of the Carnian in the Southern Alps (Dolomites), shows the episode began with a negative carbon isotope excursion that lasted for only part of one ammonoid zone (A. austriacum). However, that the Carnian Humid Episode represents a significantly longer period, both environmentally and biotically, is irrefutable. The evidence is strongest in the European, Middle East, Himalayan, North American and Japanese successions, but not always so clear in South America, Antarctica and Australia. The eruption of the Wrangellia Large Igneous Province and global warming (causing increased evaporation in the Tethyan and Panthalassic oceans) are suggested as causes for the humid episode.

Mineralogy, chemistry and biological contingents of an early-middle Miocene Antarctic paleosol and its relevance as a Martian analogue

Fossil mesofauna and bacteria recovered from a paleosol in a moraine situated adjacent to the inland ice, Antarctica, and dating to the earliest glacial event in the Antarctic Dry Valleys opens several questions. The most important relates to understanding of the mineralogy and chemistry of the weathered substrate habitat in which Coleoptera apparently thrived at some point in the Early/Middle Miocene and perhaps earlier. Here, Coleoptera remains are only located in one of six horizons in a paleosol formed in moraine deposited during the alpine glacial event (> 15 Ma). A tendency for quartz to decrease upward in the section may be a detrital effect or a product of dissolution in the early stage of profile morphogenesis when climate was presumably milder and the depositing glacier of temperate type. Discontinuous distributions of smectite, laumontite, and hexahydrite may have provided nutrients and water to mesofauna and bacteria during the early stage of biotic colonization of the profile. Because the mesofauna were members of burrowing Coleoptera species, future work should assess the degree to which the organisms occupied other sites in the Dry Valleys in the past. Whereas there is no reasonable expectations of finding Coleoptera/insect remains on Mars, the chemistry and mineralogy of the paleosol is within a life expectancy window for the presence of microorganisms, principally bacteria and fungi. Thus, parameters discussed here within this Antarctic paleosol could provide an analogue to identifying similar fossil or life-bearing weathered regolith on Mars.

LaGomiCs - Lagomorph Genomics Consortium: An International Collaborative Effort for Sequencing the Genomes of an Entire Mammalian Order

The order Lagomorpha comprises about 90 living species, divided in 2 families: the pikas (Family Ochotonidae), and the rabbits, hares, and jackrabbits (Family Leporidae). Lagomorphs are important economically and scientifically as major human food resources, valued game species, pests of agricultural significance, model laboratory animals, and key elements in food webs. A quarter of the lagomorph species are listed as threatened. They are native to all continents except Antarctica, and occur up to 5000 m above sea level, from the equator to the Arctic, spanning a wide range of environmental conditions. The order has notable taxonomic problems presenting significant difficulties for defining a species due to broad phenotypic variation, overlap of morphological characteristics, and relatively recent speciation events. At present, only the genomes of 2 species, the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and American pika (Ochotona princeps) have been sequenced and assembled. Starting from a paucity of genome information, the main scientific aim of the Lagomorph Genomics Consortium (LaGomiCs), born from a cooperative initiative of the European COST Action “A Collaborative European Network on Rabbit Genome Biology—RGB-Net” and the World Lagomorph Society (WLS), is to provide an international framework for the sequencing of the genome of all extant and selected extinct lagomorphs. Sequencing the genomes of an entire order will provide a large amount of information to address biological problems not only related to lagomorphs but also to all mammals. We present current and planned sequencing programs and outline the final objective of LaGomiCs possible through broad international collaboration.

Upgrading of suberin from cork and birch outer bark

O trabalho aqui apresentado teve como principal propósito o estudo do potencial da suberina como fonte de produtos de química fina e como precursor de novos materiais macromoleculares de origem renovável. O interesse na suberina reside, não só na sua ubiquidade e nas suas propriedades únicas em termos de composição química e hidrofobicidade, mas também no facto de ser um dos principais componentes macromoleculares dos subprodutos da indústria corticeira de Quercus suber L. no Sul da Europa, e da indústria de pasta de papel do Norte da Europa, que utiliza a Betula pendula Roth como matéria-prima. A primeira parte do presente trabalho consistiu no estudo detalhado da composição química da cortiça de Quercus suber L. e respectivos resíduos industriais bem como da casca de Betula pendula Roth recorrendo a diferentes técnicas de caracterização, nomeadamente GC-MS, IV, RMN de 1H e de 13C, DSC, termomicroscopia, TGA e difracção de raios-X. Os resultados mostraram que os produtos de despolimerização da suberina representam tipicamente uma fracção substancial de todas as amostras. Para além da suberina, foram também identificados nas diversas amostras quantidades variáveis de compostos triterpénicos, lenhina, polissacarídeos e matéria inorgânica. Os principais resultados da análise por GC-MS mostraram que todas as amostras de suberina despolimerizada são fontes abundantes de ω-hidroxiácidos e de ácidos dicarboxílicos, bem como dos correspondentes derivados epóxidados. No entanto, as quantidades relativas de cada componente identificado foram significativamente diferentes entre amostras. Por exemplo, em amostras de suberina da casca de Quercus suber L. isoladas por metanólise alcalina o composto maioritário encontrado foi o ácido 22-hidroxidocosanóico, enquanto que a suberina também proveniente da cortiça, mas isolada por hidrólise alcalina era composta maioritariamente pelo ácido 9,10-dihidroxioctadecanóico. Já no caso da amostra de suberina despolimerizada proveniente da casca externa da bétula o composto identificado como mais abundante foi o ácido 9,10-epoxi-18-hidroxioctadecanóico. A caracterização das diversas amostras de suberina despolimerizada por FTIR e RMN de 1H e de 13C foram concordantes com os resultados de GC-MS, evidenciando a sua natureza predominantemente lipofílica. Foi ainda determinada a razão entre os grupos CO2H/OH e CO2CH3/OH por RMN de 1H das amostras convenientemente derivatizadas com isocianato de tricloroacetilo, verificando-se que a suberina despolimerizada possuía quantidades não-estequiométricas destes grupos funcionais. A investigação do comportamento térmico das amostras de suberina despolimerizada, por DSC e termomicroscopia, bem como a análise por difracção de raios-X, permitiu concluir que algumas amostras de suberina despolimerizada possuíam importantes domínios cristalinos e pontos de fusão bem definidos, tipicamente próximos de 70 oC, enquanto outras amostras eram essencialmente amorfa. Factores como a fonte de suberina ou as condições de despolimerização estiveram na origem destas diferenças. iv Neste trabalho estudaram-se também os extractáveis lipofílicos da cortiça e dos seus resíduos industriais, em particular os do pó industrial de cortiça e dos condensados negros, mostrando que os extractáveis lipofílicos são uma fonte abundante de compostos triterpénicos, em particular de ácido betulínico e de friedelina. Foram ainda identificadas fracções abundantes de ω-hidroxiácidos e de ácidos dicarboxílicos no condensado negro. A segunda parte deste trabalho abordou a síntese e a caracterização de novos poliésteres alifáticos derivados de suberina. Estes materiais foram sintetizados utilizando, quer misturas de suberina despolimerizada, quer monómeros modelo estruturalmente análogos aos existentes na suberina. Recorreu-se para o efeito a duas aproximações distintas de polimerização por passos, a policondensação e a politransesterificação. Procurou-se em simultâneo maximizar a eficiência da polimerização em termos de peso molecular e de extensão da reacção e utilizar condições de reacção de química “verdes”. Neste sentido, utilizou-se a policondensação em emulsão utilizando um tensioactivo como catalisador e a policondensação em massa utilizando a lipase B de Candida antarctica. Adicionalmente foram também testado os catalisadores trifluorometanosulfonato de bismuto(III) no caso da policondensação, e ainda os catalisadores clássicos óxido de antimónio(III) e o carbonato de potássio no caso da politransesterificação. Os poliésteres resultantes foram caracterizados através de várias técnicas, tais como IV, RMN (de 1H e de 13C), DSC, DMA, TGA, difracção de raios-X e medidas dos ângulos de contacto. Verificou-se que os catalisadores trifluorometanosulfonato de bismuto (III), óxido de antimónio(III) e carbonato de potássio conduziram aos rendimentos de isolamento dos polímeros resultantes mais elevados. No caso dos poliésteres derivados da suberina os resultados em termos de rendimentos e pesos moleculares sofreram um incremento substancial quando a estequiometria da reacção de polimerização foi adequadamente balanceada (r=1) com a adição de uma quantidade extra de um comonómero. Verificou-se a predominância de diferentes estruturas consoante a amostra de suberina utilizada e as condições de síntese adoptada, predominando as cadeias lineares ou então quantidades substanciais de estruturas reticuladas. Globalmente, este primeiro estudo sistemático da utilização de suberina como um precursor de novos poliésteres alifáticos confirmou o elevado potencial deste recurso abundante e renovável como precursor para preparar materiais macromoleculares.

Production of lipase by extractive fermentation with ionic liquids

Novos processos fermentativos, designados por processos de Fermentação Extractiva, são caracterizados por apresentarem etapas de produção e extracção em simultâneo. A extracção líquido-líquido como técnica de separação é amplamente usado na indústria química pela sua simplicidade, baixo custo e facilidade de extrapolação de escala. No entanto o uso de solventes orgânicos nestes processos potencia os riscos ocupacionais e ambientais. Neste contexto, o uso de sistemas de duas fases aquosas baseados em líquidos iónicos, apresenta-se como uma técnica eficaz para a separação e purificação de produtos biológicos. Este trabalho apresenta um estudo integrado sobre o uso de líquidos iónicos não aromáticos foram determinados. A capacidade para a formação de sistemas de duas fases foi estudada para uma vasta gama de líquidos iónicos hidrofílicos com diferentes aniões, catiões e cadeias alqúilicas. A capacidade de separação e purificação de um largo conjunto de líquidos iónicos foi posteriormente investigada, recorrendo-se ao uso de várias biomoléculas modelo de diferentes graus de complexidade, um amino-acido (L-triptofano) e duas enzimas lipolíticas (enzima produzida pela bactéria Bacillus sp. e Candida antarctica lipase B – CaLB). Esta última foi ainda usada para um estudo de biocompatibilidade, tendo sido determinado o efeito de diferentes LIs hidrofílicos na sua actividade enzimática. Este trabalho mostra um estudo ecotoxicológico duma vasta gama de líquidos iónicos e espécies aquáticas, inseridas em diversos níveis tróficos. A bioacumulação foi investigada através do estudo dos coeficientes de distribuição 1-octanol-água (Dow).

Economical and operational optimization of CALB immobilization on MP1000 for amidation of olein fatty acids with ethanolamine

Dissertação de Mestrado , Engenharia Biológica, Faculdade de Engenharia de Recursos Naturais, Universidade do Algarve, 2008

Evolutionary Origin and Maintenance of Sociality in the Small Carpenter Bees

Many arthropods exhibit behaviours precursory to social life, including adult longevity, parental care, nest loyalty and mutual tolerance, yet there are few examples of social behaviour in this phylum. The small carpenter bees, genus Ceratina, provide important insights into the early stages of sociality. I described the biology and social behaviour of five facultatively social species which exhibit all of the preadaptations for successful group living, yet present ecological and behavioural characteristics that seemingly disfavour frequent colony formation. These species are socially polymorphic with both / solitary and social nests collected in sympatry. Social colonies consist of two adult females, one contributing both foraging and reproductive effort and the second which remains at the nest as a passive guard. Cooperative nesting provides no overt reproductive benefits over solitary nesting, although brood survival tends to be greater in social colonies. Three main theories explain cooperation among conspecifics: mutual benefit, kin selection and manipulation. Lifetime reproductive success calculations revealed that mutual benefit does not explain social behaviour in this group as social colonies have lower per capita life time reproductive success than solitary nests. Genetic pedigrees constructed from allozyme data indicate that kin selection might contribute to the maintenance of social nesting -, as social colonies consist of full sisters and thus some indirect fitness benefits are inherently bestowed on subordinate females as a result of remaining to help their dominant sister. These data suggest that the origin of sociality in ceratinines has principal costs and the great ecological success of highly eusociallineages occurred well after social origins. Ecological constraints such as resource limitation, unfavourable weather conditions and parasite pressure have long been considered some of the most important selective pressures for the evolution of sociality. I assessed the fitness consequences of these three ecological factors for reproductive success of solitary and social colonies and found that nest sites were not limiting, and the frequency of social nesting was consistent across brood rearing seasons. Local weather varied between seasons but was not correlated with reproductive success. Severe parasitism resulted in low reproductive success and total nest failure in solitary nests. Social colonies had higher reproductive success and were never extirpated by parasites. I suggest that social nesting represents a form of bet-hedging. The high frequency of solitary nests suggests that this is the optimal strategy when parasite pressure is low. However, social colonies have a selective advantage over solitary nesting females during periods of extreme parasite pressure. Finally, the small carpenter bees are recorded from all continents except Antarctica. I constructed the first molecular phylogeny of ceratinine bees based on four gene regions of selected species covering representatives from all continents and ecological regions. Maximum parsimony and Bayesian Inference tree topology and fossil dating support an African origin followed by an Old World invasion and New World radiation. All known Old World ceratinines form social colonies while New World species are largely solitary; thus geography and phylogenetic inertia are likely predictors of social evolution in this genus. This integrative approach not only describes the behaviour of several previously unknown or little-known Ceratina species, bu~ highlights the fact that this is an important, though previously unrecognized, model for studying evolutionary transitions from solitary to social behaviour.

ORGANOSILICON BIOTECHNOLOGY: A BIO-INSPIRED APPROACH TO THE HYDROLYSIS OF ALKOXYSILANES and THE LIPASE-CATALYZED SYNTHESIS OF SILOXANE-CONTAINING POLYESTERS AND POLYAMIDES

The first part of this thesis studied the capacity of amino acids and enzymes to catalyze the hydrolysis and condensation of tetraethoxysilane and phenyltrimethoxysilane. Selected amino acids were shown to accelerate the hydrolysis and condensation of tetraethoxysilane under ambient temperature, pressure and at neutral pH (pH 7±0.02). The nature of the side chain of the amino acid was important in promoting hydrolysis and condensation. Several proteases were shown to have a capacity to hydrolyze tri- and tet-ra- alkoxysilanes under the same mild reaction conditions. The second part of this thesis employed an immobilized Candida antarctica lipase B (Novozym-435, N435) to produce siloxane-containing polyesters, polyamides, and polyester amides under solvent-free conditions. Enzymatic activity was shown to be temperature dependent, increasing until enzyme denaturation became the dominant pro-cess, which typically occurred between 120-130ᵒC. The residual activity of N435 was, on average, greater than 90%, when used in the synthesis of disiloxane-containing polyesters, regardless of the polymerization temperature except at the very highest temperatures, 140-150ᵒC. A study of the thermal tolerance of N435 determined that, over ten reaction cycles, there was a decrease in the initial rate of polymerization with each consecutive use of the catalyst. No change in the degree of monomer conversion after a 24 hour reaction cycle was found.

Lipase-Mediated Enzymatic Catalysis For The Synthesis of New Chiral Polymers

Immobilized lipase B from Candida antarctica (N435) was investigated as a potential biocatalyst to generate silicone-based chiral polymers from monomers derived from the enzymatic dihydroxylation of bromobenzene. Several conditions and parameters have been investigated for this purpose and lipase transesterification preference to each of the free secondary alcohols in the chiral monomers was documented. The N435 was challenged with a series of substrates where the free alcohol moieties were systematically protected in order to study the substrate preference(s) for the transesterification reactions.

Cyclotetrasiloxane Frameworks for the Chemoenzymatic Synthesis of Oligoesters

Immobilized lipase B from Candida antarctica (Novozym® 435, N435) was utilized as part of a chemoenzymatic strategy for the synthesis of branched polyesters based on a cyclotetrasiloxane core in the absence of solvent. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry were utilized to monitor the reactions between tetraester cyclotetrasiloxanes and aliphatic diols. The enzyme-mediated esterification reactions can achieve 65– 80% consumption of starting materials in 24–48 h. Longer reaction times, 72–96 h, resulted in the formation of cross-linked gel-like networks. Gel permeation chromatography of the polymers indicated that the masses were Mw ¼ 11 400, 13 100, and 19 400 g mol 1 for the substrate pairs of C7D4 ester/ octane-1,8-diol, C10D4 ester/pentane-1,5-diol and C10D4 ester/octane-1,8-diol respectively, after 48 h. Extending the polymerization for an additional 24 h with the C10D4 ester/octane-1,8-diol pair gave Mw ¼ 86 800 g mol 1. To the best of our knowledge this represents the first report using lipase catalysis to produce branched polymers that are built from a cyclotetrasiloxane core.

Le modèle antarctique

Il existe actuellement des différends frontaliers entre les États circumpolaires-Nord qui entravent la bonne gouvernance de la région. Afin d'identifier des pistes de solution pour améliorer la gouvernance en Arctique et faciliter la coopération, nous analysons le processus qui a mené, à l'autre pôle, à la création du Traité sur l’Antarctique de 1959. Nous utilisons une approche néolibérale institutionnelle comme cadre théorique ainsi qu’une méthodologie basée sur le traçage de processus. Nous avons identifié quatre variables (les intérêts des États, le contexte politique, le leadership, et l’Année géophysique internationale [AGI]) que nous avons étudiés au cours de trois périodes historiques et dont l’évolution a contribué à la formation du régime antarctique. Les étapes menant à l'élaboration d'un régime identifié dans la théorie institutionnaliste dynamique de Frischmann s'appliquent aux différentes périodes que nous avons déterminées. La première période historique correspond à l'identification du problème d'interdépendance. Les États ont d’abord tenté d’assouvir leurs intérêts particuliers envers le continent antarctique par l’intermédiaire de stratégies individuelles. Le statut imprécis du continent antarctique caractérisé par des revendications territoriales conflictuelles, la volonté des superpuissances d’effectuer d’éventuelles revendications territoriales et le leadership exercé par les États-Unis ont toutefois permis de faire évoluer les États vers des stratégies coopératives. La deuxième période historique correspond à l'étape de la négociation de l’entente. Le leadership d’un groupe de scientifiques et des États-Unis ainsi que le contexte politique de la Guerre froide ont favorisé la cohésion des États intéressés par les affaires antarctiques et leur investissement dans une coopération multilatérale souple dans le cadre d’un événement ponctuel, l’AGI. La troisième période correspond à la mise en oeuvre de l’entente, soit l’AGI. Lors de cet événement, une entente tacite, un engagement d’honneur, qui suspendait les considérations territoriales en Antarctique, a été respectée par les parties. La coopération dans le cadre de l’AGI s’est avérée un succès. Les États se sont montrés satisfaits des gains que comportait la coopération scientifique dans un environnement pacifique. L’AGI a permis aux États d’expérimenter la coopération multilatérale et d’observer le comportement des autres participants au sein de l’institution. En raison de la satisfaction des États vis-à-vis la coopération dans le cadre de l'entente souple, l'élaboration du traité de 1959 a été facilitée. Notre étude nous a permis d’identifier des éléments clefs qui ont favorisé la formation du régime antarctique et qui pourraient servir d’inspiration pour l'élaboration de futurs régimes. La présence d’un leadership tout au long du processus a permis de promouvoir les avantages de la coopération sous différentes formes et de renforcer les relations entre les États présents dans les affaires antarctiques. La réalisation d'une entente souple dans le cadre de l'AGI, centrée autour des intérêts communs aux parties, comprenant un engagement d’honneur, permettant de mettre de côté les points de discorde, ont aussi été des points centraux dans la réussite et la poursuite de la coopération au-delà de l’AGI. Cette approche graduelle allant du droit souple vers le droit contraignant est sans aucun doute l’élément le plus important ayant facilité le rapprochement des différentes parties et éventuellement la création du Traité sur l’Antarctique.