How does cognition evolve? Phylogenetic comparative psychology.

Now more than ever animal studies have the potential to test hypotheses regarding how cognition evolves. Comparative psychologists have developed new techniques to probe the cognitive mechanisms underlying animal behavior, and they have become increasingly skillful at adapting methodologies to test multiple species. Meanwhile, evolutionary biologists have generated quantitative approaches to investigate the phylogenetic distribution and function of phenotypic traits, including cognition. In particular, phylogenetic methods can quantitatively (1) test whether specific cognitive abilities are correlated with life history (e.g., lifespan), morphology (e.g., brain size), or socio-ecological variables (e.g., social system), (2) measure how strongly phylogenetic relatedness predicts the distribution of cognitive skills across species, and (3) estimate the ancestral state of a given cognitive trait using measures of cognitive performance from extant species. Phylogenetic methods can also be used to guide the selection of species comparisons that offer the strongest tests of a priori predictions of cognitive evolutionary hypotheses (i.e., phylogenetic targeting). Here, we explain how an integration of comparative psychology and evolutionary biology will answer a host of questions regarding the phylogenetic distribution and history of cognitive traits, as well as the evolutionary processes that drove their evolution.

Making it in the Modern Job Market: A Study of Communication among the Deaf and Hard of Hearing Population

Gemstone Team AUDIO (Assessing and Understanding Deaf Individuals' Occupations)

Neuronal Survival of the Fittest: The Importance of Aerobic Capacity in Exercise-Induced Neurogenesis and Cognition

It is commonly accepted that aerobic exercise increases hippocampal neurogenesis, learning and memory, as well as stress resiliency. However, human populations are widely variable in their inherent aerobic fitness as well as their capacity to show increased aerobic fitness following a period of regimented exercise. It is unclear whether these inherent or acquired components of aerobic fitness play a role in neurocognition. To isolate the potential role of inherent aerobic fitness, we exploited a rat model of high (HCR) and low (LCR) inherent aerobic capacity for running. At a baseline, HCR rats have two- to three-fold higher aerobic capacity than LCR rats. We found that HCR rats also had two- to three- fold more young neurons in the hippocampus than LCR rats as well as rats from the heterogeneous founder population. We then asked whether this enhanced neurogenesis translates to enhanced hippocampal cognition, as is typically seen in exercise-trained animals. Compared to LCR rats, HCR rats performed with high accuracy on tasks designed to test neurogenesis-dependent pattern separation ability by examining investigatory behavior between very similar objects or locations. To investigate whether an aerobic response to exercise is required for exercise-induced changes in neurogenesis and cognition, we utilized a rat model of high (HRT) and low (LRT) aerobic response to treadmill training. At a baseline, HRT and LRT rats have comparable aerobic capacity as measured by a standard treadmill fit test, yet after a standardized training regimen, HRT but not LRT rats robustly increase their aerobic capacity for running. We found that sedentary LRT and HRT rats had equivalent levels of hippocampal neurogenesis, but only HRT rats had an elevation in the number of young neurons in the hippocampus following training, which was positively correlated with accuracy on pattern separation tasks. Taken together, these data suggest that a significant elevation in aerobic capacity is necessary for exercise-induced hippocampal neurogenesis and hippocampal neurogenesis-dependent learning and memory. To investigate the potential for high aerobic capacity to be neuroprotective, doxorubicin chemotherapy was administered to LCR and HCR rats. While doxorubicin induces a progressive decrease in aerobic capacity as well as neurogenesis, HCR rats remain at higher levels on those measures compared to even saline-treated LCR rats. HCR and LCR rats that received exercise training throughout doxorubicin treatment demonstrated positive effects of exercise on aerobic capacity and neurogenesis, regardless of inherent aerobic capacity. Overall, these findings demonstrate that inherent and acquired components of aerobic fitness play a crucial role not only in the cardiorespiratory system but also the fitness of the brain.

Advances in understanding mechanisms of thalamic relays in cognition and behavior.

The main impetus for a mini-symposium on corticothalamic interrelationships was the recent number of studies highlighting the role of the thalamus in aspects of cognition beyond sensory processing. The thalamus contributes to a range of basic cognitive behaviors that include learning and memory, inhibitory control, decision-making, and the control of visual orienting responses. Its functions are deeply intertwined with those of the better studied cortex, although the principles governing its coordination with the cortex remain opaque, particularly in higher-level aspects of cognition. How should the thalamus be viewed in the context of the rest of the brain? Although its role extends well beyond relaying of sensory information from the periphery, the main function of many of its subdivisions does appear to be that of a relay station, transmitting neural signals primarily to the cerebral cortex from a number of brain areas. In cognition, its main contribution may thus be to coordinate signals between diverse regions of the telencephalon, including the neocortex, hippocampus, amygdala, and striatum. This central coordination is further subject to considerable extrinsic control, for example, inhibition from the basal ganglia, zona incerta, and pretectal regions, and chemical modulation from ascending neurotransmitter systems. What follows is a brief review on the role of the thalamus in aspects of cognition and behavior, focusing on a summary of the topics covered in a mini-symposium held at the Society for Neuroscience meeting, 2014.

Citizen Science as a New Tool in Dog Cognition Research.

Family dogs and dog owners offer a potentially powerful way to conduct citizen science to answer questions about animal behavior that are difficult to answer with more conventional approaches. Here we evaluate the quality of the first data on dog cognition collected by citizen scientists using the Dognition.com website. We conducted analyses to understand if data generated by over 500 citizen scientists replicates internally and in comparison to previously published findings. Half of participants participated for free while the other half paid for access. The website provided each participant a temperament questionnaire and instructions on how to conduct a series of ten cognitive tests. Participation required internet access, a dog and some common household items. Participants could record their responses on any PC, tablet or smartphone from anywhere in the world and data were retained on servers. Results from citizen scientists and their dogs replicated a number of previously described phenomena from conventional lab-based research. There was little evidence that citizen scientists manipulated their results. To illustrate the potential uses of relatively large samples of citizen science data, we then used factor analysis to examine individual differences across the cognitive tasks. The data were best explained by multiple factors in support of the hypothesis that nonhumans, including dogs, can evolve multiple cognitive domains that vary independently. This analysis suggests that in the future, citizen scientists will generate useful datasets that test hypotheses and answer questions as a complement to conventional laboratory techniques used to study dog psychology.

Characterization of immunoregulatory T lymphocytes during ageing by monoclonal antibodies.

Monoclonal antibodies of the OKT series were used to identify T lymphocytes (OKT3+) and their inducer (OKT4+) and suppressor-cytotoxic (OKT8+) subsets in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) of 32 healthy old-aged people more than 70 years old (16 men and 16 women) compared to 47 adults (29 men, 18 women) less than 40 years old. The absolute lymphocyte count in the peripheral blood was not significantly influenced by age or sex. Both the proportions and the absolute numbers of T3+ and T4+ cells were significantly lower in aged than in young participants. The proportions but not the absolute counts of OKT8+ cells were higher in the elderly. Most interesting is the influence of sex and these parameters. Old women have normal numbers and proportions of T3+, T4+ and T8+ cells when compared to young women. The latter have a significantly higher proportion of T8+ cells than young adult males. Old men have a striking reduction of both the numbers and proportions of OKT3+ and OKT4+ cells when compared with young men and with women. In addition, old men have an elevated proportion, but a normal absolute number, of OKT8+ cells. The responses of PBMC to phytohaemagglutinin extent (PHA), concanavalin A (Con A) and pokeweed mitogen (PWM) are reduced to the same extent in ageing male and female subjects when compared to young adults. In the older group, the magnitude of the lymphocyte response to PHA and Con A but not to PWM is negatively correlated with the proportions of OKT8+ cells. Surprisingly, these correlations are observed only in old women but not in old men. The latter finding excludes the possibility that the age-associated decline of the lymphocyte response to T cell mitogens is secondary to an imbalance between T4+ and T8+ lymphocytes.

The effect of curing on the performance of ACF bonded chip-on-flex assemblies after thermal ageing

Purpose – Anisotropic conductive film (ACF) is now an attractive technology for direct mounting of chips onto the substrate as an alternative to lead-free solders. However, despite its various advantages over other technologies, it also has many unresolved reliability issues. For instance, the performance of ACF assembly in high temperature applications is questionable. The purpose of this paper is to study the effect of bonding temperatures on the curing of ACFs, and their mechanical and electrical performance after high temperature ageing. Design/methodology/approach – In the work presented in this paper, the curing degree of an ACF at different bonding temperatures was measured using a differential scanning calorimeter. The adhesion strength and the contact resistance of ACF bonded chip-on-flex assembly were measured before and after thermal ageing and the results were correlated with the curing degree of ACF. The ACF was an epoxy-based adhesive in which Au-Ni coated polymer particles were randomly dispersed. Findings – The results showed that higher bonding temperatures had resulted in better ACF curing and stronger adhesion. After ageing, the adhesion strength increased for the samples bonded at lower temperatures and decreased for the samples bonded at higher temperatures. ACF assemblies with higher degrees of curing showed smaller increases in contact resistance after ageing. Conduction gaps at the bump-particle and/or particle-pad interfaces were found with the help of scanning electron microscopy and are thought to be the root cause of the increase in contact resistance. Originality/value – The present study focuses on the effect of bonding temperatures on the curing of ACFs, and their adhesion strength and electrical performances after high temperature ageing. The results of this study may help the development of ACFs with higher heat resistance, so that ACFs can be considered as an alternative to lead-free solders.

Failure mechanisms of ACF joints under isothermal ageing

The possible failure mechanisms of anisotropic conductive film (ACF) joints under isothermal ageing conditions have been identified through experiments. It has been found that ACF joints formed at higher bonding temperatures can prevent increases in the contact resistance for any ageing temperature. The higher the ageing temperature the higher the electrical failure rate is. The formation of conduction gaps between the conductive particles and the pads and damages to the metal coatings of the particle have been identified as the reasons behind the electrical failures during ageing. In order to understand the mechanism for the formation of the conduction gap and damages in metal coatings during the isothermal ageing, computer modelling has been carried out and the results are discussed extensively. The computer analysis shows that stresses concentrate at the edges of the particle–pad interface, where the adhesive matrix meets the particle. This could lead to subsequent damages and reductions in the adhesion strength in that region and it is possible for the conductive particle to be detached from the pad and the adhesive matrix. It is believed that because of this a conduction gap appears. Furthermore, under thermal loading the thermal expansion of the adhesive matrix squeezes the conductive particle and damages the metal coatings. Experimental evidences support this computational finding. It is, therefore, postulated that if an ACF-based electronic component operates in a high temperature aging condition, its electrical and mechanical functionalities will be at risk.

Effect of reflow profile and thermal cycle ageing on the intermetallic formation and growth in lead-free soldering

The formation and growth of intermetallic compound layer thickness is one of the important issues in search for reliable electronic and electrical connections. Intermetallic compounds (IMCs) are an essential part of solder joints. At low levels, they have a strengthening effect on the joint; but at higher levels, they tend to make solder joints more brittle. If the solder joint is subjected to long-standing exposure of high temperature, this could result in continuous growth of intermetallic compound layer. The brittle intermetallic compound layer formed in this way is very much prone to fracture and cold therefore lead to mechanical and electrical failure of the joint. Therefore, the primary aim of this study is to investigate the growth of intermetallic compound layer thickness subjected to five different reflow profiles. The study also looks at the effect of three different temperature cycles (with maximum cycle temperature of 25 0C, 40 0C and 60 0C) on intermetallic compound formation and their growth behaviour.. Two different Sn-Ag-Cu solder pastes (namely paste P1 and paste P2) which were different in flux medium, were used for the study. The result showed that the growth of intermetallic compound layer thickness was a function of ageing temperature. It was found that the rate of growth of intermetallic compound layer thickness of paste P1 was higher than paste P2 at the same temperature condition. This behaviour could be related to the differences in flux mediums of solder paste samples used.

Coping, conversation tactics and marital interaction in persons with acquired profound hearing loss (APHL): correlates of distress

This study investigated coping strategies, conversation tactics, and marital interaction in acquired profound hearing loss (APHL) and compared emotionally stable (n = 15) and emotionally distressed (n = 7) participants. Nominated family members were assessed on most measures. Comparisons were also made in the subgroup of married participants. A combined distress criterion was derived from scores on standardized measures of anxiety, depression, hearing handicap, and post-traumatic stress. Groups were compared on the Ways-of-Coping Checklist, a newly devised measure of conversation tactics, and on the Couple Behaviour Report. It was found that distressed APHL participants were more likely to cope through avoidance, self-blame, and wishful thinking, and they used more avoidant tactics in conversation. The coping profile of family members did not differentiate distress groups. However, there was some indication of greater employment of coercive tactics by family members of distressed participants. The results are consistent with the view that the coping style of a person with APHL and the nature of their conversational interactions with family members contribute to their level of distress. Implications for audiological rehabilitation are discussed.

The role of joint training in practitioner development for learning disability services

The presentation explores and evaluates an innovation in education and training in which two different professional trainings (nursing and social work) are integrated to produce jointly qualified specialist practitioners.

A cross-sectional study of neuropsychiatric symptoms in 435 patients with Alzheimer's disease

OBJECTIVES: The behavioral and psychological symptoms of Alzheimer's disease (AD) are associated with significant patient and caregiver distress and increased likelihood of institutionalization. We attempted to characterize in detail these symptoms and the distress they cause to caregivers. METHODS: Patients with probable AD were assessed with the Mini-Mental State Exam (MMSE), Functional Assessment Staging (FAST), and the Neuropsychiatric Inventory With Caregiver Distress (NPI-D). RESULTS: Four hundred and thirty-five patients were recruited. Neuropsychiatric symptoms of all types were highly prevalent. The most common and most persistent symptom was apathy (75%). Delusional symptoms were the least persistent. Depressive and apathetic symptoms were the earliest to appear, and hallucinations, elation/euphoria, and aberrant motor behavior were the latest symptoms to emerge. Hallucinations were significantly more common in severe dementia. Symptoms of irritability were most prevalent in early disease. Total Neuropsychiatric Symptom score was significantly correlated with MMSE and FAST score. Caregivers rated their own emotional distress levels as moderate or severe for 10 out of 12 symptom domains. The sum total of caregiver distress was strongly correlated with total NPI-D but not cognition or functional state. Distress levels did not vary when analyzed according to the patients' place of residence. CONCLUSIONS: Potentially treatable neuropsychiatric symptoms are common in AD and represent a major source of distress among caregivers. The extent of neuropsychiatric symptomatology is seen to correlate with the level of functional and cognitive disability although some symptoms are variably persistent and related to disease stage.