Effects of endophyte colonization of Vicia faba (Fabaceae) plants on the life

The effects of fungal endophytes Beauveria bassiana isolates ICIPE 279, G1LU3, S4SU1 and Hypocrea lixii isolate F3ST1 on the life-history of Phaedrotoma scabriventris and Diglyphus isaea, parasitoids of the pea leafminer Liriomyza huidobrensis, were studied in the laboratory. Parasitoids were allowed to parasitize 2nd-3rd L. huidobrensis larvae reared on endophytically-inoculated Vicia faba. In the control, parasitoids were reared on non-inoculated host plants. Parasitism, pupation, adult emergence and survival were recorded. No significant difference was observed between the control and the endophyte-inoculated plants in terms of parasitism rates of P. scabriventris (p = 0.68) and D. isaea (p = 0.45) and adult' survival times (p = 0.06). The survival period of the F1 progeny of P. scabriventris was reduced (p < 0.0001) in B. bassiana S4SU1 to 28 days as compared to more than 40 days for B. bassiana G1LU3, ICIPE 279 and H. lixii F3ST1. However, no significant difference (p = 0.54) was observed in the survival times of the F1 progeny of D. isaea. This study has therefore demonstrated the beneficial effects of both endophytes and parasitoids in L. huidobrensis population suppression.

(Table 1) Chlorophyll concentration and pigment composition of carotenoids in three heathland bryophytes, northern Sweden

Background and Aims: Anthropogenic depletion of stratospheric ozone in Arctic latitudes has resulted in an increase of ultraviolet-B radiation (UV-B) reaching the biosphere. UV-B exposure is known to reduce aboveground biomass and plant height, to increase DNA damage and cause accumulation of UV-absorbing compounds in polar plants. However, many studies on Arctic mosses tended to be inconclusive. The importance of different water availability in influencing UV-B impacts on lower plants in the Arctic has been poorly explored and might partially explain the observed wide variation of responses, given the importance of water in controlling bryophyte physiology. This study aimed to assess the long-term responses of three common sub-Arctic bryophytes to enhanced UV-B radiation (+UV-B) and to elucidate the influence of water supply on those responses. Results: Responses were species specific: H. splendens responded most to +UV-B, with reduction in both annual growth (-22%) and sporophyte production (-44%), together with increased b-carotene, violaxanthin, total chlorophyll and NPQ, and decreased zeaxanthin and de-epoxidation of the xanthophyll cycle pool (DES). Barbilophozia lycopodioides responded less to +UV-B, showing increased b-carotene and sclerophylly and decreased UV-absorbing compounds. Polytrichum commune only showed small morphogenetic changes. No effect of UV-B on bryophyte cover was observed. Water availability had profound effects on bryophyte ecophysiology, and plants showed, in general, lower growth and ETR, together with a higher photoprotection in the drier site. Water availability also influenced bryophyte responses to +UV-B and, in particular, responses were less detectable in the drier site. Conclusions: Impacts of UV-B exposure on Arctic bryophytes were significant, in contrast to modest or absent UV-B effects measured in previous studies. The impacts were more easily detectable in species with high plasticity such as H. splendens and less obvious, or more subtle, under drier conditions. Species biology and water supply greatly influences the impact of UV-B on at least some Arctic bryophytes and could contribute to the wide variation of responses observed previously.

Differential in vitro and in vivo effect of barley cysteine and serine protease inhibitors on phytopathogenic microorganisms

Protease inhibitors from plants have been involved in defence mechanisms against pests and pathogens. Phytocystatins and trypsin/α-amylase inhibitors are two of the best characterized protease inhibitor families in plants. In barley, thirteen cystatins (HvCPI-1 to 13) and the BTI-CMe trypsin inhibitor have been previously studied. Their capacity to inhibit pest digestive proteases, and the negative in vivo effect caused by plants expressing these inhibitors on pests support the defence function of these proteins. Barley cystatins are also able to inhibit in vitro fungal growth. However, the antifungal effect of these inhibitors in vivo had not been previously tested. Moreover, their in vitro and in vivo effect on plant pathogenous bacteria is still unknown. In order to obtain new insights on this feature, in vitro assays were made against different bacterial and fungal pathogens of plants using the trypsin inhibitor BTI-CMe and the thirteen barley cystatins. Most barley cystatins and the BTI-CMe inhibitor were able to inhibit mycelial growth but no bacterial growth. Transgenic Arabidopsis plants independently expressing the BTI-CMe inhibitor and the cystatin HvCPI-6 were tested against the same bacterial and fungal pathogens. Neither the HvCPI-6 expressing transgenic plants nor the BTI-CMe ones were more resistant to plant pathogen fungi and bacteria than control Arabidopsis plants. The differences observed between the in vitro and in planta assays against phytopathogenic fungi are discussed

Helping to Close the Generational Gap in Nuclear: The Seminars and Conferences of Spanish Young Generation in Nuclear (Jóvenes Nucleares)

As in each country of Europe with nuclear power, there is a clear gap between those generation that have built the power plants in the eighties and the new generations with less than ten years of experience in the nuclear field. From its creation, Spanish Young Generation in Nuclear (Jóvenes Nucleares) has as an important scope to help transferring the knowledge between those generations in the way that it can be possible. Some years ago, JJNN have started organizing seminars periodically trying to cover as many areas as possible in the nuclear engineering field, and some of them outside the industry but related with it.

Gaussian Multiscale Aggregation oriented to Hand Biometric Segmentation in Mobile Devices

New trends in biometrics are oriented to mobile devices in order to increase the overall security in daily actions like bank account access, e-commerce or even document protection within the mobile. However, applying biometrics to mobile devices imply challenging aspects in biometric data acquisition, feature extraction or private data storage. Concretely, this paper attempts to deal with the problem of hand segmentation given a picture of the hand in an unknown background, requiring an accurate result in terms of hand isolation. For the sake of user acceptability, no restrictions are done on background, and therefore, hand images can be taken without any constraint, resulting segmentation in an exigent task. Multiscale aggregation strategies are proposed in order to solve this problem due to their accurate results in unconstrained and complicated scenarios, together with their properties in time performance. This method is evaluated with a public synthetic database with 480000 images considering different backgrounds and illumination environments. The results obtained in terms of accuracy and time performance highlight their capability of being a suitable solution for the problem of hand segmentation in contact-less environments, outperforming competitive methods in literature like Lossy Data Compression image segmentation (LDC).

Gaussian Multiscale Aggregation Applied to Segmentation in Hand Biometrics

This paper presents an image segmentation algorithm based on Gaussian multiscale aggregation oriented to hand biometric applications. The method is able to isolate the hand from a wide variety of background textures such as carpets, fabric, glass, grass, soil or stones. The evaluation was carried out by using a publicly available synthetic database with 408,000 hand images in different backgrounds, comparing the performance in terms of accuracy and computational cost to two competitive segmentation methods existing in literature, namely Lossy Data Compression (LDC) and Normalized Cuts (NCuts). The results highlight that the proposed method outperforms current competitive segmentation methods with regard to computational cost, time performance, accuracy and memory usage.

Automatic segmentation of relevant textures in agricultural images

One important issue emerging strongly in agriculture is related with the automatization of tasks, where the optical sensors play an important role. They provide images that must be conveniently processed. The most relevantimage processing procedures require the identification of green plants, in our experiments they come from barley and corn crops including weeds, so that some types of action can be carried out, including site-specific treatments with chemical products or mechanical manipulations. Also the identification of textures belonging to the soil could be useful to know some variables, such as humidity, smoothness or any others. Finally, from the point of view of the autonomous robot navigation, where the robot is equipped with the imaging system, some times it is convenient to know not only the soil information and the plants growing in the soil but also additional information supplied by global references based on specific areas. This implies that the images to be processed contain textures of three main types to be identified: green plants, soil and sky if any. This paper proposes a new automatic approach for segmenting these main textures and also to refine the identification of sub-textures inside the main ones. Concerning the green identification, we propose a new approach that exploits the performance of existing strategies by combining them. The combination takes into account the relevance of the information provided by each strategy based on the intensity variability. This makes an important contribution. The combination of thresholding approaches, for segmenting the soil and the sky, makes the second contribution; finally the adjusting of the supervised fuzzy clustering approach for identifying sub-textures automatically, makes the third finding. The performance of the method allows to verify its viability for automatic tasks in agriculture based on image processing

LHPP, the light-harvesting NADPH:protochlorophyllide (Pchlide) oxido¬reductase:Pchlide complex of etiolated plants, is developmentally expressed across the barley leaf gradient

NADPH:protochlorophyllide oxidoreductase is a key enzyme for the light-induced greening of etiolated angiosperm plants. In barley, two POR proteins exist termed PORA and PORB that have previously been proposed to structurally and functionally cooperate in terms of a higher molecular mass light-harvesting complex named LHPP, in the prolamellar body of etioplasts [Nature 397 (1999) 80]. In this study we examined the expression pattern of LHPP during seedling etiolation and de-etiolation under different experimental conditions. Our results show that LHPP is developmentally expressed across the barley leaf gradient. We further provide evidence that LHPP operates both in plants that etiolate completely before being exposed to white light and in plants that etiolate only partially and begin light-harvesting as soon as traces of light become available in the uppermost parts of the soil. As a result of light absorption, in either case LHPP converts Pchlide a to chlorophyllide (Chlide) a and in turn disintegrates. The released Chlide a, as well as Chlide b produced upon LHPP’s light-dependent dissociation, which leads to the activation of the PORA as a Pchlide b-reducing enzyme, then bind to homologs of water-soluble chlorophyll proteins of Brassicaceae. We propose that these proteins transfer Chlide a and Chlide b to the thylakoids, where their esterification with phytol and assembly into the photosynthetic membrane complexes ultimately takes place. Presumably due to the tight coupling of LHPP synthesis and degradation, as well as WSCP formation and photosynthetic membrane assembly, efficient photo-protection is conferred onto the plant.

Geochemical fingerprints and controls in the sediments of an urban river: River Manzanares, Madrid (Spain)

The geochemical fingerprint of sediment retrieved from the banks of the River Manzanares as it passes through the City of Madrid is presented here. The river collects the effluent water from several Waste Water Treatment (WWT) plants in and around the city, such that, at low flows, up to 60% of the flow has been treated. A total of 18 bank-sediment cores were collected along the course of the river, down to its confluence with the Jarama river, to the south–east of Madrid. Trace and major elements in each sample were extracted following a double protocol: (a) “Total” digestion with HNO3, HClO4 and HF; (b) “Weak” digestion with sodium acetate buffered to pH=5 with acetic acid, under constant stirring. The digests thus obtained were subsequently analysed by ICP-AES, except for Hg which was extracted with aqua regia and sodium chloride-hydroxylamine sulfate, and analysed by Cold Vapour-AAS. X-ray diffraction was additionally employed to determine the mineralogical composition of the samples. Uni- and multivariate analyses of the chemical data reveal the influence of Madrid on the geochemistry of Manzanares' sediments, clearly manifested by a marked increase in the concentration of typically “urban” elements Ag, Cr, Cu, Pb and Zn, downstream of the intersection of the river with the city's perimeter. The highest concentrations of these elements appear to be associated with illegal or accidental dumping of waste materials, and with the uncontrolled incorporation of untreated urban runoff to the river. The natural matrix of the sediment is characterised by fairly constant concentrations of Ce, La and Y, whereas changes in the lithology intersected by the river cause corresponding variations in Ca–Mg and Al–Na contents. In the final stretch of the river, the presence of carbonate materials seems to exert a strong geochemical control on the amount of Zn and, to a lesser extent, Cu immobilised in the sediments. This fact suggests that a variable but significant proportion of both elements may be susceptible to reincorporation in the aqueous phase under realistic environmental conditions.

Use of STATCOM in wind farms with fixed-speed generators for grid code compliance

The increasing penetration of wind energy into power systems has pushed grid operators to set new requirements for this kind of generating plants in order to keep acceptable and reliable operation of the system. In addition to the low voltage ride through capability, wind farms are required to participate in voltage support, stability enhancement and power quality improvement. This paper presents a solution for wind farms with fixed-speed generators based on the use of STATCOM with braking resistor and additional series impedances, with an adequate control strategy. The focus is put on guaranteeing the grid code compliance when the wind farm faces an extensive series of grid disturbances.

Power system stability of a small sized isolated network supplied by a combined wind-pumped storage generation system: a case study in the Canary Islands

Massive integration of renewable energy sources in electrical power systems of remote islands is a subject of current interest. The increasing cost of fossil fuels, transport costs to isolated sites and environmental concerns constitute a serious drawback to the use of conventional fossil fuel plants. In a weak electrical grid, as it is typical on an island, if a large amount of conventional generation is substituted by renewable energy sources, power system safety and stability can be compromised, in the case of large grid disturbances. In this work, a model for transient stability analysis of an isolated electrical grid exclusively fed from a combination of renewable energy sources has been studied. This new generation model will be installed in El Hierro Island, in Spain. Additionally, an operation strategy to coordinate the generation units (wind, hydro) is also established. Attention is given to the assessment of inertial energy and reactive current to guarantee power system stability against large disturbances. The effectiveness of the proposed strategy is shown by means of simulation results.

Molecular basis of salt tolerance in Physcomitrella Patens model plant: potassium homeostasis and physiological roles of chx transporters

El suelo salino impone un estrés abiótico importante que causa graves problemas en la agricultura ya que la mayoría de los cultivos se ven afectados por la salinidad debido a efectos osmóticos y tóxicos. Por ello, la contaminación y la escasez de agua dulce, la salinización progresiva de tierras y el aumento exponencial de la población humana representan un grave problema que amenaza la seguridad alimentaria mundial para las generaciones futuras. Por lo tanto, aumentar la tolerancia a la salinidad de los cultivos es un objetivo estratégico e ineludible para garantizar el suministro de alimentos en el futuro. Mantener una óptima homeostasis de K+ en plantas que sufren estrés salino es un objetivo importante en el proceso de obtención de plantas tolerantes a la salinidad. Aunque el modelo de la homeostasis de K+ en las plantas está razonablemente bien descrito en términos de entrada de K+, muy poco se sabe acerca de los genes implicados en la salida de K+ o de su liberación desde la vacuola. En este trabajo se pretende aclarar algunos de los mecanismos implicados en la homeostasis de K+ en plantas. Para ello se eligió la briofita Physcomitrella patens, una planta no vascular de estructura simple y de fase haploide dominante que, entre muchas otras cualidades, hacen que sea un modelo ideal. Lo más importante es que no sólo P. patens es muy tolerante a altas concentraciones de Na+, sino que también su posición filogenética en la evolución de las plantas abre la posibilidad de estudiar los cambios claves que, durante el curso de la evolución, se produjeron en las diversas familias de los transportadores de K+. Se han propuesto varios transportadores de cationes como candidatos que podrían tener un papel en la salida de K+ o su liberación desde la vacuola, especialmente miembros de la familia CPA2 que contienen las familias de transportadores KEA y CHX. En este estudio se intenta aumentar nuestra comprensión de las funciones de los transportadores de CHX en las células de las plantas usando P. patens, como ya se ha dicho. En esta especie, se han identificado cuatro genes CHX, PpCHX1-4. Dos de estos genes, PpCHX1 y PpCHX2, se expresan aproximadamente al mismo nivel que el gen PpACT5, y los otros dos genes muestran una expresión muy baja. La expresión de PpCHX1 y PpCHX2 en mutantes de Escherichia coli defectivos en el transporte de K+ restauraron el crecimiento de esta cepa en medios con bajo contenido de K+, lo que viii sugiere que la entrada de K+ es energizada por un mecanismo de simporte con H+. Por otra parte, estos transportadores suprimieron el defecto asociado a la mutación kha1 en Saccharomyces cerevisiae, lo que sugiere que podrían mediar un antiporte en K+/H+. La proteína PpCHX1-GFP expresada transitoriamente en protoplastos de P. patens co-localizó con un marcador de Golgi. En experimentos similares, la proteína PpCHX2-GFP localizó aparentemente en la membrana plasmática y tonoplasto. Se construyeron las líneas mutantes simples de P. patens ΔPpchx1 y ΔPpchx2, y también el mutante doble ΔPpchx2 ΔPphak1. Los mutantes simples crecieron normalmente en todas las condiciones ensayadas y mostraron flujos de entrada normales de K+ y Rb+; la mutación ΔPpchx2 no aumentó el defecto de las plantas ΔPphak1. En experimentos a largo plazo, las plantas ΔPpchx2 mostraron una retención de Rb+ ligeramente superior que las plantas silvestres, lo que sugiere que PpCHX2 promueve la transferencia de Rb+ desde la vacuola al citosol o desde el citosol al medio externo, actuando en paralelo con otros transportadores. Sugerimos que transportadores de K+ de varias familias están involucrados en la homeostasis de pH de orgánulos ya sea mediante antiporte K+/H+ o simporte K+-H+.ix ABSTRACT Soil salinity is a major abiotic stress causing serious problems in agriculture as most crops are affected by it. Moreover, the contamination and shortage of freshwater, progressive land salinization and exponential increase of human population aggravates the problem implying that world food security may not be ensured for the next generations. Thus, a strategic and an unavoidable goal would be increasing salinity tolerance of plant crops to secure future food supply. Maintaining an optimum K+ homeostasis in plants under salinity stress is an important trait to pursue in the process of engineering salt tolerant plants. Although the model of K+ homeostasis in plants is reasonably well described in terms of K+ influx, very little is known about the genes implicated in K+ efflux or release from the vacuole. In this work, we aim to clarify some of the mechanisms involved in K+ homeostasis in plants. For this purpose, we chose the bryophyte plant Physcomitrella patens, a nonvascular plant of simple structure and dominant haploid phase that, among many other characteristics, makes it an ideal model. Most importantly, not only P. patens is very tolerant to high concentrations of Na+, but also its phylogenetic position in land plant evolution opens the possibility to study the key changes that occurred in K+ transporter families during the course of evolution. Several cation transporter candidates have been proposed to have a role in K+ efflux or release from the vacuole especially members of the CPA2 family which contains the KEA and CHX transporter families. We intended in this study to increase our understanding of the functions of CHX transporters in plant cells using P. patens, in which four CHX genes have been identified, PpCHX1-4. Two of these genes, PpCHX1 and PpCHX2, are expressed at approximately the same level as the PpACT5 gene, but the other two genes show an extremely low expression. PpCHX1 and PpCHX2 restored growth of Escherichia coli mutants on low K+-containing media, suggesting they mediated K+ uptake that may be energized by symport with H+. In contrast, these genes suppressed the defect associated to the kha1 mutation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which suggest that they might mediate K+/H+ antiport. PpCHX1-GFP protein transiently expressed in P. patens protoplasts co-localized with a Golgi marker. In similar experiments, the PpCHX2-GFP protein appeared to localize to tonoplast and plasma x membrane. We constructed the ΔPpchx1 and ΔPpchx2 single mutant lines, and the ΔPpchx2 ΔPphak1 double mutant. Single mutant plants grew normally under all the conditions tested and exhibited normal K+ and Rb+ influxes; the ΔPpchx2 mutation did not increase the defect of ΔPphak1 plants. In long-term experiments, ΔPpchx2 plants showed a slightly higher Rb+ retention than wild type plants, which suggests that PpCHX2 mediates the transfer of Rb+ from either the vacuole to the cytosol or from the cytosol to the external medium in parallel with other transporters. We suggest that K+ transporters of several families are involved in the pH homeostasis of organelles by mediating either K+/H+ antiport or K+-H+ symport.

Comportamiento estructural de tuberías forzadas y blindajes en saltos hidroeléctricos : propuestas de diseño y cálculo

En los últimos años ha aumentado el interés en el desarrollo de proyectos en el ámbito de las centrales hidroeléctricas y en concreto en las centrales reversibles. Estas centrales están diseñadas para grandes caudales y saltos, lo cual conlleva túneles de gran diámetro y alta presión y a menudo son esquemas subterráneos. Por ello, los estudios relativos a revestimientos de túneles en presión y los referentes a los blindajes de acero han cobrado una mayor relevancia. En las décadas de los 60 y 70 se realizó una importante labor de investigación coincidiendo con el desarrollo hidroeléctrico en Europa y Norteamérica, que sin embargo ha quedado sin continuidad hasta esta década, en la que se ha experimentado un impulso debido al desarrollo de nuevos proyectos hidroeléctricos de gran magnitud. La adecuación de los métodos de cálculo de blindajes supone una herramienta imprescindible en el correcto desarrollo técnico de los nuevos proyectos hidroeléctricos, así como para la evaluación de la seguridad de los saltos hidroeléctricos existentes en operación. En la presente Tesis se realiza un análisis del comportamiento estructural de las galerías en presión de saltos hidroeléctricos, así como una discusión y revisión de los métodos de cálculo existentes. En concreto se analizan los siguientes aspectos: •Descripción y comparación de las formulaciones existentes para el cálculo de blindajes tanto a presión exterior como interior. •Aplicación del Método de Elementos Finitos para la modelización y cálculo resistente y frente a inestabilidad de blindajes sometidos a presión exterior. •Análisis de un caso real, en el que se ha producido un fallo estructural en un blindaje sometido a presión exterior. Discusión sobre el comportamiento de blindajes con rigidizadores. Estudio paramétrico de la capacidad resistente y de la estabilidad de los blindajes con rigidizadores. •Estudio del comportamiento diferenciado entre un rigidizador y un conector. •Detalles constructivos y de durabilidad de las galerías en presión. •Desarrollo de una metodología para el cálculo de blindajes y tuberías forzadas a fatiga derivada de las variaciones de presión de la conducción. •Análisis de un caso real de una tubería forzada sometida a procesos de variación de carga, evaluando su seguridad frente a la fatiga. El cálculo de blindajes en galerías forzadas presenta una serie de aspectos complejos, y que no permiten la definición del problema con exactitud, tales como las características del macizo rocoso y su permeabilidad, la determinación del nivel freático, la holgura existente entre el blindaje y el revestimiento del trasdós y sus posibles defectos geométricos. Por estas incertidumbres, el cálculo de blindajes supone una materia compleja y que debe ser abordada desde la cautela y el análisis de otros trabajos y/o análisis realizados con anterioridad. En cualquier caso, debe realizarse un análisis de sensibilidad de los diversos parámetros que intervienen en el cálculo. En esta tesis se han descrito las principales formulaciones de cálculo de blindajes de galerías forzadas sometidas a presión interior y exterior; se ha constatado que existe una gran diversidad y que de su aplicación no se llega a resultados concluyentes. Las formulaciones clásicas utilizadas en el cálculo de blindajes lisos y con rigidizadores sometidos a presión exterior (Amstutz y Jacobsen) no resultan del todo adecuadas ni son de aplicación general. Además, pueden arrojar resultados no conservadores o conducir a un sobredimensionamiento del blindaje en otros casos. En las formulaciones tradicionales de diseño se han tenido en cuenta como imperfecciones la holgura del blindaje y la ovalidad del mismo. En la presente tesis, se han analizado imperfecciones de tipo ondulatorio derivadas de los procesos de soldadura y la existencia de espesores reducidos en zonas de corrosión. En el caso práctico analizado sometido a presión exterior, se ha comprobado el funcionamiento real del blindaje mediante los modelos realizados con elementos finitos. Se desprende que los rigidizadores no han funcionado como tales, puesto que para blindajes lisos se obtienen presiones más bajas de pandeo y para el caso de funcionamiento correcto de los rigidizadores se habría obtenido un coeficiente de seguridad suficiente. Por este motivo, se ha analizado el posible funcionamiento de los rigidizadores, que en determinados casos pueden actuar como conectores. En estos casos deben dimensionarse de forma adecuada las soldaduras para soportar las tensiones entre chapa y conector. Por otra parte, tradicionalmente no se han tenido en cuenta los efectos de fatiga que pueden ocasionar los golpes de ariete y las pulsaciones de presión debidas a la regulación secundaria de la red. En esta tesis se ha establecido un procedimiento de comprobación de tuberías forzadas y blindajes sometidos a procesos de fatiga. Adicionalmente, se ha estudiado el caso real de las tuberías forzadas de una central reversible real (Bolarque II) en funcionamiento de regulación secundaria. Se ha concluido, como en otros casos analizados en la bibliografía, que las pulsaciones derivadas de la regulación secundaria no son significativas como para tener en cuenta la fatiga del acero. Por otra parte, las maniobras de arranque y parada (golpe de ariete) suponen una variación importante de la presión en la conducción. Sin embargo, el moderado número de ciclos permite asegurar la integridad de la tubería frente a fenómenos de fatiga. Nowadays, there is a significant concern in the development of projects in the field of hydroelectric power plants, particularly in the pump-storage projects. These plants are designed for high flow rates and heads, which entails large-diameter tunnels and high pressure ratios), and often as underground schemes. Therefore, this concern has reactivated studies about penstocks and in particular those related to steel liners. During the 1960s and 1970s due to hydropower-engineering development in Europe and North America, a major research effort was done. However, the increasing development of new large-scale hydropower projects has involved a renewed research effort during this decade. The adequacy of steel liner calculation methods is a very important issue in the proper technical development of new hydroelectric projects, and for the safety assessment of existing hydroelectric power plants in operation. In this work, an analysis of the structural behavior of pressure galleries in hydroelectric schemes was carried out. Also, a discussion and a review of existing calculation methods are included. In particular, the following issues have been considered: •Description and comparison of existing formulations for calculating the liner response to both external and internal pressure. •Analysis of an actual case study of a steel liner which failed due to external pressure. •Application of the Finite Element Method to liner modeling and analysis subjected to external pressure. •A parametric study of the shielding with stiffeners and discussion about the behavior of liner with stiffeners. •Constructive aspects and durability of pressure galleries. •Development of a methodology for estimating fatigue effects on penstocks and liners sue to pressure changes. •Analysis of an actual case study of a penstock under varying load and assessment of its safety against fatigue. The project of a hydropower penstock is a complex issue, due to the uncertainties in the definition of the problem data, such as the characteristics of the rock mass and its permeability, the determination of the water table, the existing gap between the steel liner and the concrete of the backfill, the geometric imperfections... Hence, the design and analysis of a steel liner must be addressed cautiously and take into account a review of previous studies performed. Ever, a sensitivity analysis of the various parameters involved in the calculation should be performed. In this work, some of the most relevant formulations for liner design subjected to inside and outside pressure have been studied. As a whole, there is a wide variety and its application does not lead to conclusive results. The classical formulations used in the steel liner calculation either with or without stiffeners under external pressure (Amstutz and Jacobsen) are not entirely adequate Also, those can yield both conservative and non-conservative results in large ranges of application. Traditionally design approaches only considered initial gap and ovality as the most relevant geometric imperfections. Thus, little attention was paid to those caused either by welding or by thickness loss in corroded areas. In the case study analyzed in this thesis, the actual working of the liner under external pressure has been simulated by the Finite Element Method. Results show that the stiffeners have not performed as such, since for unstiffened liner lower buckling pressures are obtained and for proper performance of the stiffeners would give a sufficient safety factor. Hence, it must be pointed out that stiffeners may perform either as such or as connectors. For the latter, welding must be designed to properly withstand stresses between the shell and the stiffener. Likewise, the potential fatigue effects due to both water hammer and pressure pulsations due to secondary regulation of the network have not been considered in many studies. It has been included in this work a procedure for checking penstocks and liners under fatigue processes. Additionally, the penstock fatigue response of an actual pump storage project (Bolarque II, Spain) subjected to secondary control operation has been assessed. As in other cases discussed in the literature, pulsations derived from the secondary control are not significant to account for fatigue of steel. Moreover, the start and stop manoeuvres (water hammer) cause a significant change in penstock pressure. However, the moderate number of cycles ensures the integrity of the penstock against fatigue phenomena.

Habitat management for conservation of pollinators in agro-ecosystems of Central Spain

La gestión de hábitat orientada a la conservación de polinizadores en los agro-ecosistemas requiere una selección de especies vegetales atendiendo fundamentalmente a dos criterios: i) el potencial atractivo de sus flores a los polinizadores; y ii) la simplicidad en su manejo agronómico. Además de estas premisas, es necesario considerar la capacidad invasora de estas especies vegetales, debido a que algunas de las más atractivas pueden resultar invasoras en determinados agro-ecosistemas. Por lo tanto, es preciso determinar qué especies vegetales son las más indicadas para ser implementadas en cada agro-ecosistema. En la presente tesis doctoral se plantea la búsqueda de las especies vegetales adecuadas para atraer polinizadores en los agro-ecosistemas del centro de España. En una primera aproximación, se ha evaluado la atracción y expansión espacial (potencial invasivo) de seis plantas perennes de la familia Lamiaceae (aromáticas), elegidas por ser nativas de la región mediterránea. La elección de las especies vegetales se ha llevado a cabo con el fin de crear márgenes funcionales basados en la mezcla de especies vegetales con distintos periodos de floración, de modo que prolonguen la disponibilidad de recursos florales en el tiempo. Tras un primer año dedicado al establecimiento de las especies aromáticas, en los dos años siguientes se ha estudiado la atracción individual y combinada de las especies vegetales sobre los polinizadores, y como ésta se ve afectada por la densidad y la morfología floral, utilizando para ello un diseño experimental en bloques al azar. Los resultados de este estudio han puesto de manifiesto que la morfología floral no tuvo influencia sobre la atracción de las especies vegetales, pero si la densidad floral, puesto que las especies vegetales con mayor densidad de flores (Nepeta tuberosa e Hyssopus officinalis) han mostrado mayor atracción a polinizadores. Cabe destacar que de las seis especies consideradas, dos especies de verano (Melissa officinalis y Thymbra capitata) no han contribuido de forma efectiva a la atracción de la mezcla hacia los polinizadores, mostrando una reducción significativa de este parámetro respecto a las otras especies aromáticas a lo largo del verano. Se ha observado que ninguna de las especies aromáticas evaluadas ha mostrado tendencia invasora a lo largo del estudio. En base a estos resultados, se puede concluir que entre las especies aromáticas estudiadas, N. tuberosa, H. officinalis y Salvia verbenaca son las que ofrecen mayor potencial para ser utilizadas en la conservación de polinizadores. De forma similar al caso de las plantas aromáticas, se ha llevado a cabo una segunda experimentación que incluía doce plantas anuales con floración de primavera, en la que se evaluó la atracción a polinizadores y su comportamiento agronómico. Este estudio con especies herbáceas se ha prolongado durante dos años, utilizando un diseño experimental de bloques aleatorios. Las variables analizadas fueron: el atractivo de las distintas especies vegetales a los polinizadores, su eficiencia de atracción (calculada como una combinación de la duración de la floración y las visitas de insectos), su respuesta a dos tipos de manejo agronómico (cultivo en mezcla frente a monocultivo; laboreo frente a no-laboreo) y su potencial invasivo. Los resultados de esta segunda experimentación han mostrado que las flores de Borago officinalis, Echium plantagineum, Phacelia tanacetifolia y Diplotaxis tenuifolia son atractivas a las abejas, mientras que las flores de Calendula arvensis, Coriandrum sativum, D. tenuifolia y Lobularia maritima son atractivas a los sírfidos. Con independencia del tipo de polinizadores atraídos por cada especie vegetal, se ha observado una mayor eficiencia de atracción en parcelas con monocultivo de D. tenuifolia respecto a las parcelas donde se cultivó una mezcla de especies herbáceas, si bien en estas últimas se observó mayor eficiencia de atracción que en la mayoría de parcelas mono-específicas. Respecto al potencial invasivo de las especies herbáceas, a pesar de que algunas de las más atractivas a polinizadores (P. tanacetifolia and C. arvensis) mostraron tendencia a un comportamiento invasor, su capacidad de auto-reproducción se vio reducida con el laboreo. En resumen, D. tenuifolia es la única especie que presentó una alta eficiencia de atracción a distintos tipos de polinizadores, conjuntamente con una alta capacidad de auto-reproducción pero sin mostrar carácter invasor. Comparando el atractivo de las especies vegetales utilizadas en este estudio sobre los polinizadores, D. tenuifolia es la especie más recomendable para su cultivo orientado a la atracción de polinizadores en agro-ecosistemas en el centro de España. Esta especie herbácea, conocida como rúcula, tiene la ventaja añadida de ser una especie comercializada para el consumo humano. Además de su atractivo a polinizadores, deben considerarse otros aspectos relacionados con la fisiología y el comportamiento de esta especie vegetal en los agro-ecosistemas antes de recomendar su cultivo. Dado que el cultivo en un campo agrícola de una nueva especie vegetal implica unos costes de producción, por ejemplo debidos a la utilización de agua de riego, es necesario evaluar el incremento en dichos costes en función de demanda hídrica específica de esa especie vegetal. Esta variable es especialmente importante en zonas dónde se presentan sequías recurrentes como es el caso del centro y sur-este de la península Ibérica. Este razonamiento ha motivado un estudio sobre los efectos del estrés hídrico por sequía y el estrés por déficit moderado y severo de riego sobre el crecimiento y floración de la especie D. tenuifolia, así como sobre la atracción a polinizadores. Los resultados muestran que tanto el crecimiento y floración de D. tenuifolia como su atracción a polinizadores no se ven afectados si la falta de riego se produce durante un máximo de 4 días. Sin embargo, si la falta de riego se extiende a lo largo de 8 días o más, se observa una reducción significativa en el crecimiento vegetativo, el número de flores abiertas, el área total y el diámetro de dichas flores, así como en el diámetro y longitud del tubo de la corola. Por otro lado, el estudio pone de manifiesto que un déficit hídrico regulado permite una gestión eficiente del agua, la cual, dependiendo del objetivo final del cultivo de D. tenuifolia (para consumo o solo para atracción de polinizadores), puede reducir su consumo entre un 40 y un 70% sin afectar al crecimiento vegetativo y desarrollo floral, y sin reducir significativamente el atractivo a los polinizadores. Finalmente, esta tesis aborda un estudio para determinar cómo afecta el manejo de hábitat a la producción de los cultivos. En concreto, se ha planteado una experimentación que incluye márgenes mono-específicos y márgenes con una mezcla de especies atractivas a polinizadores, con el fin de determinar su efecto sobre la producción del cultivo de cilantro (C. sativum). La elección del cultivo de cilantro se debe a que requiere la polinización de insectos para su reproducción (aunque, en menor medida, puede polinizarse también por el viento), además de la facilidad para estimar su producción en condiciones semi-controladas de campo. El diseño experimental consistía en la siembra de márgenes mono-específicos de D. tenuifolia y márgenes con mezcla de seis especies anuales situados junto al cultivo de cilantro. Estos cultivos con márgenes florales fueron comparados con controles sin margen floral. Además, un segundo grupo de plantas de cilantro situadas junto a todos los tratamientos, cuyas flores fueron cubiertas para evitar su polinización, sirvió como control para evaluar la influencia de los polinizadores en la producción del cultivo. Los resultados muestran que la presencia de cualquiera de los dos tipos de margen floral mejora el peso y el porcentaje de germinación de las semillas de cilantro frente al control sin margen. Si se comparan los dos tipos de margen, se ha observado un mayor número de semillas de cilantro junto al margen con mezcla de especies florales respecto al margen mono-específico, probablemente debido al mayor número visitas de polinizadores. Puesto que el experimento se realizó en condiciones de campo semi-controladas, esto sugiere que las visitas de polinizadores fueron el factor determinante en los resultados. Por otro lado, los resultados apuntan a que la presencia de un margen floral (ya sea mono-especifico o de mezcla) en cultivos de pequeña escala puede aumentar la producción de cilantro en más de un 200%, al tiempo que contribuyen a la conservación de los polinizadores. ABSTRACT Habitat management, aimed to conserve pollinators in agro-ecosystems, requires selection of the most suitable plant species in terms of their attractiveness to pollinators and simplicity of agronomic management. However, since all flowers are not equally attractive to pollinators and many plant species can be weedy or invasive in the particular habitat, it is important to test which plant species are the most appropriate to be implemented in specific agro-ecosystems. For that reason, this PhD dissertation has been focused on determination of the most appropriate aromatic and herbaceous plants for conservation of pollinators in agro-ecosystems of Central Spain. Therefore, in a first approximation, spatial expansion (i.e. potential weediness) and attractiveness to pollinators of six aromatic perennial plants from the Lamiaceae family, native and frequent in the Mediterranean region, were evaluated. Preliminary plant selection was based on designing a functional mixed margins consisting of plants attractive to pollinators and with different blooming periods, in order to extend the availability of floral resources in the field. After a year of vegetative growth, the next two years the plant species were studied in a randomized block design experiment in order to estimate their attractiveness to pollinators in Central Spain and to investigate whether floral morphology and density affect attractiveness to pollinators. The final aim of the study was to evaluate how their phenology and attractiveness to pollinators can affect the functionality of a flowering mixture of these plants. In addition, the spatial expansion, i.e. potential weediness, of the selected plant species was estimated under field conditions, as the final purpose of the studied plants is to be implemented within agro-ecosystems. The results of the experiment showed that floral morphology did not affect the attractiveness of plants to pollinators, but floral density did, as plant species with higher floral density (i.e. Nepeta tuberosa and Hyssopus officinalis) showed significantly higher attractiveness to pollinators. In addition, of six plant species, two summer species (Melissa officinalis and Thymbra capitata) did not efficiently contribute to the attractiveness of the mixture to pollinators, which reduced its attractiveness during the summer period. Finally, as none of the plants showed weedy behaviour under field conditions, the attractive plant species, i.e. N. tuberosa, H. officinalis and the early spring flowering Salvia verbenaca, showed good potential to conserve the pollinators. Similarly, in a second approximation, the attractiveness to pollinators and agronomic behaviour of twelve herbaceous plants blooming in spring were studied. This experiment was conducted over two years in a randomized block design in order to evaluate attractiveness of preselected plant species to pollinators, as well as their attractiveness efficiency (a combination of duration of flowering and insect visitation), their response to two different agronomic management practices (growing in mixed vs. mono-specific plots; tillage vs. no-tillage), and their potential weediness. The results of this experiment showed that the flowers of Borago officinalis, Echium plantagineum, Phacelia tanacetifolia and Diplotaxis tenuifolia were attractive to bees, while Calendula arvensis, Coriandrum sativum, D. tenuifolia and Lobularia maritima were attractive to hoverflies. In addition, floral mixture resulted in lower attractiveness efficiency to pollinators than mono-specific D. tenuifolia, but higher than most of the mono-specific stands. On the other hand, although some of the most attractive plant species (e.g. P. tanacetifolia and C. arvensis) showed potential weediness, their self-seeding was reduced by tillage. After comparing attractiveness efficiency of various herbaceous species to pollinators and their potential weediness, the results indicated that D. tenuifolia showed the highest attractiveness efficiency to pollinators and efficient self-reproduction, making it highly recommended to attract bees and hoverflies in agro-ecosystems of Central Spain. In addition, this plant, commonly known as wild rocket, has a supplementary economic value as a commercialized crop. The implementation of a new floral margin in agro-ecosystems means increased production costs, especially in regions with frequent and long droughts (as it is Central and South-East area of Iberian Peninsula), where the principal agricultural cost is irrigation. Therefore, before recommending D. tenuifolia for sustainable habitat management within agro-ecosystems, it is necessary to study the effect of drought stress and moderate and severe deficit irrigation on its growth, flower development and attractiveness to pollinators. The results of this experiment showed that in greenhouse conditions, potted D. tenuifolia could be without irrigation for 4 days without affecting its growth, flowering and attractiveness to pollinators. However, lack of irrigation for 8 days or longer significantly reduced the vegetative growth, number of open flowers, total floral area, flower diameter, corolla tube diameter and corolla tube length of D. tenuifolia. This study showed that regulated deficit irrigation can improve water use efficiency, and depending on the purpose of growing D. tenuifolia, as a crop or as a beneficial plant to attract pollinators, it can reduce water consumption by 40% to 70% without affecting its vegetative and floral development and without reducing its attractiveness to pollinators. Finally, the following experiment was developed in order to understand how habitat management can influence on the agricultural production. For this purpose, it was evaluated if the vicinity of mixed and mono-specific field margins, preselected to conserve pollinators within agro-ecosystems, can improve seed production in coriander (C. sativum). The selection of this plant species for the experiment was based on its necessity for insect pollination for production of seeds (even though some pollen can be transmitted from one flower to another by wind) and the fact that under semi-controlled field conditions established in the field it is possible to estimate its total seed production. Since D. tenuifolia is attractive for both bees and hoverflies in Central Spain, the main objective of this experiment was to estimate the impact of two different types of field margins, i.e. mono-specific margin with D. tenuifolia and mixed margin with six herbaceous species, on the seed production of potted coriander. For that reason, it was tested: i) if open pollination (control without proximate field margin and treatments with nearby mono-specific and mixed margin) increases the seed production of coriander when compared with no-pollination (covered inflorescences of coriander) under field conditions; ii) if frequency of pollinator visitation to the flowers of coriander was higher in the presence of field margins than in the control without field margin; and iii) if seed production was higher in the presence of field margins than in control plants of coriander without field margin. The results showed that the proximity of both types of floral margins (mixed and mono-specific) improved the seed quality of coriander plants, as seed weight and germination rate were higher than in control plants without field margin. Furthermore, the number of seeds produced was significantly higher in coriander plants grown near mixed margins than near mono-specific margin, probably due to an increase in pollinator visits. Since the experiment was conducted under semi-controlled field conditions, it can be concluded that pollinator visits was the main factor that biased the results, and that presence of both mixed or mono-specific (D. tenuifolia) margins can improve the production of coriander for more than 200% in small-scale gardens and, in addition, conserve the local pollinators.

Estudios corológicos de plantas vasculares en la cuenca media del Tajo

Se ha realizado un estudio de la distribución de plantas vasculares en un territorio situado entre las provincias de Cuenca, Guadalajara, Madrid y Toledo (España). El territorio estudiado está en la Submeseta Sur de la península ibérica, al sur del Sistema Central, norte de los Montes de Toledo y oeste del Sistema Ibérico, en zonas sedimentarias con poco relieve y clima mediterráneo, con grandes contrastes de temperatura y precipitaciones muy irregulares. Coincide con las regiones naturales llamadas: “Alcarrias”, “Campiñas de Madrid y Guadalajara” y “Vegas de los ríos de la Cuenca del Tajo”. Es lo que he llamado Cuenca Media del Tajo. En una primera fase se ha estudiado la flora regional para adquirir conocimientos previos mediante las consultas bibliográficas y de herbarios, se ha contado con bases de datos disponibles para MA, MACB, MAF, JACA, AH, ABH, VAL, SALA y EMMA. Se han revisado las aportaciones propias que en los últimos años he realizado en el territorio en relación a los temas tratados en la tesis. El trabajo de campo ha consistido en la realización de inventarios de presencia de flora. Ha sido muy importante la tarea herborizadora para llegar a la correcta identificación de las especies colectadas en los inventarios. De esta forma el autor ha confeccionado un herbario propio JML que en el territorio muestreado ha reunido cerca de 15000 números en las cuatro provincias estudiadas. Se ha hecho un muestreo sistemático del territorio con unos 6000 listados de plantas. Se ha tomado como unidad de muestreo la cuadrícula de UTM de 1 km de lado incluida como una centésima parte de la cuadrícula de UTM de 10 km. Se han seguido criterios para uniformizar el muestreo. Se ha apuntado el tiempo empleado y la superficie muestreada estimada en cada toma de datos. El criterio mínimo que tienen que cumplir todas las cuadrículas en el área estudiada ha sido que para cada cuadrícula de UTM de 5 km se han realizado al menos 5 inventarios en 5 cuadrículas diferentes de UTM de 1 km y al menos en una hora de tiempo. La unidad de comparación ha sido la cuadrícula UTM de 5 km. Se han informatizado los inventarios de campo, para ello se ha creado la base de datos TESIS en Microsoft office –Access-. Las principales tablas son LOCALIDAD, en la que se anotan las características del lugar muestreado y ESPECIES, que lista las especies de flora consideradas en las cuatro provincias del estudio. Por medio de formularios se han rellenado las tablas; destaca la tabla ESPECIE INVENTARIO que relaciona las tablas ESPECIES y LOCALIDAD; esta tabla cuenta en este momento con unos 165.000 registros. En la tabla ESPECIES_FPVI se visualizan las especies recopiladas. Se ha creado un indicador llamado FPVI “Flora permanentemente visible identificable” que consiste en atribuir a cada especie unos índices que nos permiten saber si una determinada planta se puede detectar en cualquier época del año. Los resultados presentados son: Creación de la base de datos TESIS. El Catálogo Florístico de la Cuenca Media del Tajo, que es el catálogo de la flora de las cuatro provincias desde el principio de la sistemática hasta las Saxifragáceas. En total se han recopilado 1028 taxones distribuidos en 77 familias. Se ha calculado el índice FPVI, para las especies del catálogo. La finalidad para la que se ha diseñado este índice es para poder comparar territorios. Para el desarrollo de ambos resultados ha sido fundamental el desarrollo de la tabla ESPECIES_PVI de la base de datos TESIS. En la tabla ESPECIES_PVI se han apuntado las características ecológicas y se revisa la información bibliográfica disponible para cada especie; las principales fuentes de información consultadas han sido Flora iberica, el proyecto “Anthos” y las bases de datos de los herbarios. Se ha apuntado sí se ha visto, sí está protegida o sí en un endemismo. Otros resultados son: la localización de las cuadrículas de UTM de 10 km, con mayor número de endemismos o especies singulares, con mayor valor botánico. Se ha realizado un par de ejemplos de estudios de autoecología de especie, en concreto Teucrium pumilum y Clematis recta. Se han confeccionando salidas cartográficas de distribución de especies. Se ha elaborado el herbario JML. Se ha presentado una sencilla herramienta para incluir inventarios florísticos, citas corológicas, consultas de autoecología o etiquetado de pliegos de herbario. Como colofón, se ha colaborado para desarrollar una aplicación informática de visualización, análisis y estudio de la distribución de taxones vegetales, que ha utilizado como datos de partida un porcentaje importante de los obtenidos para esta tesis. ABSTRACT I have made a study of the distribution of vascular plants in a territory located between the provinces of Cuenca, Guadalajara, Madrid and Toledo (Spain). The studied area is in the “Submeseta” South of the Iberian Peninsula, south of the Central System, north of the Montes de Toledo and west of the Iberian System, in sedimentary areas with little relief and Mediterranean climate, with big temperature contrasts and irregular rainfall. Coincides with the natural regions called "Alcarrias", "countryside of Madrid and Guadalajara" and “Vegas River Tagus Basin”. This is what I have called Middle Tagus Basin. In a first step we have studied the regional flora to acquire prior knowledge through the literature and herbaria consultations, it has had available databases for MA, MACB, MAF, JACA, AH, ABH, VAL, SALA and EMMA herbaria. The contributions I have made in the last years in the territory in relation to the topics discussed in the thesis have been revised. The field work consisted of conducting inventories presence of flora. Botanize was a very important task to get to the correct identification of the species collected in inventories. In this way the author has made his own herbarium JML in the sampled area has met at least 15000 samples in the four studied provinces. There has been a systematic sampling of the territory with nearly 6,000 listings of plants. Was taken as the sampling unit grid UTM 1 km side included as a hundredth of the UTM grid of 10 km from side. Criteria have been taken to standardize the sampling. Data were taken of the time spent and the estimated sampled surface. The minimum criteria they have to meet all the grids in the study area has been that for each UTM grid of 5 km have been made at least 5 stocks in 5 different grids UTM 1 km and at least one hour of time. The unit of comparison was the UTM grid of 5 km. I have computerized inventories of field, for it was created a database in Access- Microsoft office -TESIS. The main tables are LOCALIDAD, with caracteristics of the sampled location and ESPECIES, which lists the plant species considered in the four provinces of the study, is. Through forms I filled in the tables; highlights ESPECIE INVENTARIO table that relates the tables ESPECIES and LOCALIDAD, this table is counted at the moment with about 165,000 records. The table ESPECIES FPVI visualizes all recollected species. We have created an indicator called FPVI "Flora permanently visible identifiable" that attributes to each species indices that allow us to know whether a given plant can be detected in any season. The results presented are: Creating data base TESIS. The Floristic Books Middle Tagus Basin, which is a catalog of the flora of the four provinces since the beginning of the systematic until Saxifragaceae. In total 1028 collected taxa in 77 families. We calculated FPVI index for species catalog. The purpose for which this index designed is, to compare territories. For the development of both results, it was essential to develop the table ESPECIES_PVI TESIS data base. Table ESPECIES_PVI has signed the ecological characteristics and bibliographic information available for each species is revised; the main sources of information has been Flora iberica, the Anthos project databases of herbaria. Targeted species has been recorded, when seen, protected or endemism. Have also been located UTM grids of 10 km, with the largest number of endemic or unique species and more botanical value. There have been a couple of species autecology studies, namely Teucrium pumilum and Clematis recta, as an example of this type of study. They have been putting together maps of species distribution. We made herbarium JML. I have presented a simple tool to include floristic inventories, chorological appointments, consultations or to tag autoecology herbarium specimens. To cap it has worked to develop a computer application for visualization, analysis and study of the distribution of plant taxa, which has used as input data a significant percentage of those obtained for this thesis.