An accurate model for simulating energetic behavior of PV grid connected inverters

This paper proposes a new model for characterizing the energetic behavior of grid connected PV inverters. The model has been obtained from a detailed study of main loss processes in small size PV inverters in the market. The main advantage of the used method is to obtain a model that comprises two antagonistic features, since both are simple, easy to compute and apply, and accurate. One of the main features of this model is how it handles the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) and the efficiency: in both parts the model uses the same approach and it is achieved by two resistive elements which simulate the losses inherent to each parameter. This makes this model easy to implement, compact and refined. The model presented here also includes other parameters, such as start threshold, standby consumption and islanding behavior. In order to validate the model, the values of all the parameters listed above have been obtained and adjusted using field measurements for several commercial inverters, and the behavior of the model applied to a particular inverter has been compared with real data under different working conditions, taken from a facility located in Madrid. The results show a good fit between the model values and the real data. As an example, the model has been implemented in PSPICE electronic simulator, and this approach has been used to teach grid-connected PV systems. The use of this model for the maintenance of working PV facilities is also shown.

Nuevo concepto de elementos estructurales horizontales de vidrio : placa autoportante y pretensada en forma de pi

En los últimos años, podemos darnos cuenta de la importancia que tienen las nuevas aplicaciones de vidrio especialmente en edificios turísticos donde el vértigo juega un papel importante en la visita. Sin embargo los sistemas constructivos no tienen un especial interés porque el vidrio laminado está siempre soportado por otro elemento de acero o incluso vidrio en forma de retícula. En la presente tesis voy a desarrollar una nueva solución de elemento autoportante de vidrio de gran tamaño haciendo seguro el uso del elemento para andar en el aire. El sueño de muchos arquitectos ha sido diseñar un edificio completamente transparente y a mí me gustaría contribuir a este sueño empezando a estudiar un forjado de vidrio como elemento estructural horizontal y para ello debemos cumplir requerimientos de seguridad. Uno de los objetivos es lograr un elemento lo más transparente y esbelto posible para el uso de pasarelas en vestíbulos de edificios. Las referencias construidas son bien conocidas, pero por otro lado Universidades europeas estudian continua estudiando el comportamiento del vidrio con diferentes láminas, adhesivos, apilados, insertos, sistemas de laminado, pretensado, pandeo lateral, seguridad post-rotura y muchos más aspectos necesarios. La metodología llevada a cabo en esta tesis ha sido primeramente diseñar un elemento industrial prefabricado horizontal de vidrio teniendo en cuenta todos los conceptos aprendidos en el estado del arte y la investigación para poder predimensionar el elemento. El siguiente paso será verificar el modelo por medio de cálculo analítico, simulación de elementos finitos y ensayos físicos. Para realizar los ensayos hay un paso intermedio teniendo que cambiar la hipótesis de carga uniforme a carga puntal para realizar el ensayo de flexión a 4 puntos normalizado y además cambiar a escala 1:2 para adaptarse al espacio de ensayo y ser viable económicamente. Finalmente compararé los resultados de tensión y deformación obtenidos por los tres métodos para extraer conclusiones. Sin embargo el problema de la seguridad no ha concluido, tendré que demostrar que el sistema es seguro después de que se produzca la rotura y para ello sólo dispongo de los ensayos como medio de demostración. El diseño es el resultado de la evolución de una viga tipo “I”; cuando es pretensada para obtener más resistencia, aparece el problema de pandeo lateral y éste es solucionado con una viga con sección en “T” cuya unión es resuelta con un cajeado longitudinal en la parte inferior del elemento horizontal. Las alas de éste crecen para recoger las cargas superficiales creando a su vez un punto débil en la unión que a su vez se soluciona duplicando la sección “TT” y haciendo trabajar dicho tablero de forma tan óptima como una viga continua. Dicha sección en vidrio como un único elemento pretensado es algo inédito. Además he diseñado unas escuadras metálicas en los extremos de los nervios como apoyo y placa de pretensión, así como una hendidura curva en el centro de los nervios para alojar los tirantes de acero de modo que al pretensar el tirante la placa corrija al menos la deformación por peso propio. Realizados los cambios geométricos de escala y las simplificaciones en el laminado y el adhesivo se programan la extracción de resultados desde 3 estadios diferentes: Sin pretensión y con pretensión de 750 Kg y de 1000Kg en cada nervio. Por cada estadio y por cada uno de los métodos, cálculo, simulación y ensayos, se extraen los datos de deformación y tensión en el punto medio de un nervio con el objetivo de hacer una comparación de resultados para obtener unas conclusiones, siempre en el campo de la elasticidad. Posteriormente incrementaré la carga hasta el momento de la rotura de la placa y después hasta el colapso teniendo en cuenta el tiempo y demostrando una rotura segura. El vidrio no tendrá un comportamiento plástico pero habrá sido controlado su comportamiento frágil manteniendo una carga y una deformación aceptable. ABSTRACT Over the past few years we have realized the importance of the new technologies regarding the application of glass in new buildings, especially those touristic places were the views and the heights are the reason of the visit. However, the construction systems of these glass platforms are not usually as interesting, because the laminated glass is always held by another steel substructure or even a grid-formed glass element. Throughout this thesis I am going to develop a new solution of a self-bearing element with big dimensions made out of glass, ensuring a safe solution to use as an element to walk on the air. The dream of many architects has been to create a building completely transparent, and I would like to contribute to this idea by making a glass slab as a horizontal structural element, for which we have to meet the security requirements. One of the goals is to achieve an element as transparent and slim as possible for the use in walkways of building lobbies. The glass buildings references are well known, but on the other hand the European Universities study the behaviour of the glass with different interlayers, adhesives, laminating systems, stacking, prestressed, buckling, safety, breakage and post-breakage capacity; and many other necessary aspects. The methodology followed in this thesis has been to first create a horizontal industrial prefabricated horizontal element of glass, taking into account all the concepts learned in the state of art and the investigation to be able to predimension this element. The next step will be to verify this model with an analytic calculus, a finite element modelling simulation and physical tests. To fulfil these tests there is an intermediate step, having to change the load hypothesis from a punctual one to make the test with a four points normalized deflexion, and also the scale of the sample was changed to 1:2 to adapt to the space of the test and make it economically possible. Finally, the results of tension and deformation obtained from the three methods have been compared to make the conclusions. However, the problem with safety has not concluded yet, for I will have to demonstrate that this system is safe even after its breakage, for which I can only use physical tests as a way of demonstration. The design is the result of the evolution of a typical “I” beam, which when it is prestressed to achieve more resistance, the effect of buckling overcomes, and this is solved with a “T” shaped beam, where the union is solved with a longitudinal groove on the inferior part of the horizontal element. The boards of this beam grow to cover the superficial loads, creating at the same time a weak point, which is solved by duplicating the section “TT” and therefore making this board work as optimal as a continuous beam. This glass section as a single prestressed element is unique. After the final design of the “π” glass plate was obtained and the composition of the laminated glass and interlayers has been predimensioned, the last connection elements must be contemplated. I have also designed a square steel shoe at the end of the beams, which will be the base and the prestressed board, as well as a curved slot in the centre of the nerves to accommodate the steel braces so that when this brace prestresses the board, at least the deformation due to its self-weight will be amended. Once I made the geometric changes of the scale and the simplifications on the laminating and the adhesive, the extraction on results overcomes from three different stages: without any pretension, with a pretension of 750 kg and with a pretension of 1000 kg on each rib. For each stage and for each one of the methods, calculus, simulation and tests, the deformation datum were extracted to obtain the conclusions, always in the field of the elasticity. Afterwards, I will increase the load until the moment of breakage of this board, and then until the collapse of the element, taking into account the time spent and demonstrating a safe breakage. The glass will not have a plastic behaviour, but its brittle behaviour has been controlled, keeping an acceptable load and deflection.

Reduction of front-metallization grid shading in concentrator cells through laser micro-grooved cover glass

Concentrator solar cell front-grid metallizations are designed so that the trade-off between series resistance and shading factor (SF) is optimized for a particular irradiance. High concentrator photovoltaics (CPV) typically requires a metallic electrode pattern that covers up to 10% of the cell surface. The shading effect produced by this front electrode results in a significant reduction in short-circuit current (I SC) and hence, in a significant efficiency loss. In this work we present a cover glass (originally meant to protect the cell surface) that is laser-grooved with a micrometric pattern that redirects the incident solar light towards interfinger regions and away from the metallic electrodes, where they would be wasted in terms of photovoltaic generation. Quantum efficiency (QE) and current (I)-voltage (V) characterization under concentration validate the proof-of-concept, showing great potential for CPV applications

Grid-Connected Forward Microinverter With Primary-Parallel Secondary-Series Transformer

This paper presents a primary-parallel secondaryseries multicore forward microinverter for photovoltaic ac-module application. The presented microinverter operates with a constant off-time boundary mode control, providing MPPT capability and unity power factor. The proposed multitransformer solution allows using low-profile unitary turns ratio transformers. Therefore, the transformers are better coupled and the overall performance of the microinverter is improved. Due to the multiphase solution, the number of devices increases but the current stress and losses per device are reduced contributing to an easier thermal management. Furthermore, the decoupling capacitor is split among the phases, contributing to a low-profile solution without electrolytic capacitors suitable to be mounted in the frame of a PV module. The proposed solution is compared to the classical parallel-interleaved approach, showing better efficiency in a wide power range and improving the weighted efficiency.

Motivators for adoption of photovoltaic systems at grid parity: A case study from Southern Germany

In some countries, photovoltaic (PV) technology is at a stage of development at which it can compete with conventional electricity sources in terms of electricity generation costs, i.e., grid parity. A case in point is Germany, where the PV market has reached a mature stage, the policy support has scaled down and the diffusion rate of PV systems has declined. This development raises a fundamental question: what are the motives to adopt PV systems at grid parity? The point of departure for the relevant literature has been on the impact of policy support, adopters and, recently, local solar companies. However, less attention has been paid to the motivators for adoption at grid parity. This paper presents an in-depth analysis of the diffusion of PV systems, explaining the impact of policy measures, adopters and system suppliers. Anchored in an extensive and exploratory case study in Germany, we provide a context-specific explanation to the motivations to adopt PV systems at grid parity.

Bivariate Krawtchouk polynomials: Inversion and connection problems with the NAVIMA algorithm

In this paper we present a recurrent procedure to solve an inversion problem for monic bivariate Krawtchouk polynomials written in vector column form, giving its solution explicitly. As a by-product, a general connection problem between two vector column of monic bivariate Krawtchouk families is also explicitly solved. Moreover, in the non monic case and also for Krawtchouk families, several expansion formulas are given, but for polynomials written in scalar form.

Using WYSIWYM to Create an Open-ended Interface for the Semantic Grid

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Molecular evidence for multiple origins of woodiness and a New World biogeographic connection of the Macaronesian Island endemic Pericallis (Asteraceae: Senecioneae)

The prevalence of woody species in oceanic islands has attracted the attention of evolutionary biologists for more than a century. We used a phylogeny based on sequences of the internal-transcribed spacer region of nuclear ribosomal DNA to trace the evolution of woodiness in Pericallis (Asteraceae: Senecioneae), a genus endemic to the Macaronesian archipelagos of the Azores, Madeira, and Canaries. Our results show that woodiness in Pericallis originated independently at least twice in these islands, further weakening some previous hypotheses concerning the value of this character for tracing the continental ancestry of island endemics. The same data suggest that the origin of woodiness is correlated with ecological shifts from open to species-rich habitats and that the ancestor of Pericallis was an herbaceous species adapted to marginal habitats of the laurel forest. Our results also support Pericallis as closely related to New World genera of the tribe Senecioneae.

CIKS, a connection to IκB kinase and stress-activated protein kinase

Pathogens, inflammatory signals, and stress cause acute transcriptional responses in cells. The induced expression of genes in response to these signals invariably involves transcription factors of the NF-κB and AP-1/ATF families. Activation of NF-κB factors is thought to be mediated primarily via IκB kinases (IKK), whereas that of AP-1/ATF can be mediated by stress-activated protein kinases (SAPKs; also named Jun kinases or JNKs). IKKα and IKKβ are two catalytic subunits of a core IKK complex that also contains the regulatory subunit NEMO (NF-κB essential modulator)/IKKγ. The latter protein is essential for activation of the IKKs, but its mechanism of action is not known. Here we describe the molecular cloning of CIKS (connection to IKK and SAPK/JNK), a previously unknown protein that directly interacts with NEMO/IKKγ in cells. When ectopically expressed, CIKS stimulates IKK and SAPK/JNK kinases and it transactivates an NF-κB-dependent reporter. Activation of NF-κB is prevented in the presence of kinase-deficient, interfering mutants of the IKKs. CIKS may help to connect upstream signaling events to IKK and SAPK/JNK modules. CIKS could coordinate the activation of two stress-induced signaling pathways, functions reminiscent of those noted for tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor adaptor proteins.

Vipp1 deletion mutant of Synechocystis: A connection between bacterial phage shock and thylakoid biogenesis?

Plant chloroplasts originated from an endosymbiotic event by which an ancestor of contemporary cyanobacteria was engulfed by an early eukaryotic cell and then transformed into an organelle. Oxygenic photosynthesis is the specific feature of cyanobacteria and chloroplasts, and the photosynthetic machinery resides in an internal membrane system, the thylakoids. The origin and genesis of thylakoid membranes, which are essential for oxygenic photosynthesis, are still an enigma. Vipp1 (vesicle-inducing protein in plastids 1) is a protein located in both the inner envelope and the thylakoids of Pisum sativum and Arabidopsis thaliana. In Arabidopsis disruption of the VIPP1 gene severely affects the plant's ability to form properly structured thylakoids and as a consequence to carry out photosynthesis. In contrast, Vipp1 in Synechocystis appears to be located exclusively in the plasma membrane. Yet, as in higher plants, disruption of the VIPP1 gene locus leads to the complete loss of thylakoid formation. So far VIPP1 genes are found only in organisms carrying out oxygenic photosynthesis. They share sequence homology with a subunit encoded by the bacterial phage shock operon (PspA) but differ from PspA by a C-terminal extension of about 30 amino acids. In two cyanobacteria, Synechocystis and Anabaena, both a VIPP1 and a pspA gene are present, and phylogenetic analysis indicates that VIPP1 originated from a gene duplication of the latter and thereafter acquired its new function. It also appears that the C-terminal extension that discriminates VIPP1 proteins from PspA is important for its function in thylakoid formation.

Molecular dynamics of a grid-mounted molecular dipolar rotor in a rotating electric field

Classical molecular dynamics is applied to the rotation of a dipolar molecular rotor mounted on a square grid and driven by rotating electric field E(ν) at T ≃ 150 K. The rotor is a complex of Re with two substituted o-phenanthrolines, one positively and one negatively charged, attached to an axial position of Rh\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document} \begin{equation*}{\mathrm{_{2}^{4+}}}\end{equation*}\end{document} in a [2]staffanedicarboxylate grid through 2-(3-cyanobicyclo[1.1.1]pent-1-yl)malonic dialdehyde. Four regimes are characterized by a, the average lag per turn: (i) synchronous (a < 1/e) at E(ν) = |E(ν)| > Ec(ν) [Ec(ν) is the critical field strength], (ii) asynchronous (1/e < a < 1) at Ec(ν) > E(ν) > Ebo(ν) > kT/μ, [Ebo(ν) is the break-off field strength], (iii) random driven (a ≃ 1) at Ebo(ν) > E(ν) > kT/μ, and (iv) random thermal (a ≃ 1) at kT/μ > E(ν). A fifth regime, (v) strongly hindered, W > kT, Eμ, (W is the rotational barrier), has not been examined. We find Ebo(ν)/kVcm−1 ≃ (kT/μ)/kVcm−1 + 0.13(ν/GHz)1.9 and Ec(ν)/kVcm−1 ≃ (2.3kT/μ)/kVcm−1 + 0.87(ν/GHz)1.6. For ν > 40 GHz, the rotor behaves as a macroscopic body with a friction constant proportional to frequency, η/eVps ≃ 1.14 ν/THz, and for ν < 20 GHz, it exhibits a uniquely molecular behavior.

A dendrodendritic reciprocal synapse provides a recurrent excitatory connection in the olfactory bulb

Neuronal synchronization in the olfactory bulb has been proposed to arise from a diffuse action of glutamate released from mitral cells (MC, olfactory bulb relay neurons). According to this hypothesis, glutamate spills over from dendrodendritic synapses formed between MC and granule cells (GC, olfactory bulb interneurons) to activate neighboring MC. The excitation of MC is balanced by a strong inhibition from GC. Here we show that MC excitation is caused by glutamate released from bulbar interneurons located in the GC layer. These reciprocal synapses depend on an unusual, 2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid-resistant, N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor. This type of feedback excitation onto relay neurons may strengthen the original sensory input signal and further extend the function of the dendritic microcircuit within the main olfactory bulb.

New Arabidopsis cue Mutants Suggest a Close Connection between Plastid- and Phytochrome Regulation of Nuclear Gene Expression1

We searched for new components that are involved in the positive regulation of nuclear gene expression by light by extending a screen for Arabidopsis cue (chlorophyll a/b-binding [CAB] protein-underexpressed) mutants (H.-M. Li, K. Culligan, R.A. Dixon, J. Chory [1995] Plant Cell 7: 1599–1610). cue mutants display reduced expression of the CAB3 gene, which encodes light-harvesting chlorophyll protein, the main chloroplast antenna. The new mutants can be divided into (a) phytochrome-deficient mutants (hy1 and phyB), (b) virescent or delayed-greening mutants (cue3, cue6, and cue8), and (c) uniformly pale mutants (cue4 and cue9). For each of the mutants, the reduction in CAB expression correlates with the visible phenotype, defective chloroplast development, and reduced abundance of the light-harvesting chlorophyll protein. Levels of protochlorophyllide oxidoreductase (POR) were reduced to varying degrees in etiolated mutant seedlings. In the dark, whereas the virescent mutants displayed reduced CAB expression and the lowest levels of POR protein, the other mutants expressed CAB and accumulated POR at near wild-type levels. All of the mutants, with the exception of cue6, were compromised in their ability to derepress CAB expression in response to phytochrome activation. Based on these results, we propose that the previously postulated plastid-derived signal is closely involved in the pathway through which phytochrome regulates the expression of nuclear genes encoding plastid proteins.