El reto de la extensión agraria en el Perú: de la transferencia de tecnologías a un trabajo integrado sobre el territorio. Aplicación en la provincia de Aymaraes

La extensión agraria entendida como transferencia de tecnología que tuvo su auge en la llamada Revolución Verde, con el paso del tiempo empezó a mostrar serias deficiencias en su objetivo de lograr que los agricultores asumieran las nuevas tecnologías, esto motivo un continuo trabajo de investigación en el área que ha generado una serie de modelos y enfoques. Sin embargo, a pesar que mucho ha cambiado, aún no se logra responder adecuadamente a la necesidad de cambio e innovación que tienen los pequeños productores de los países en desarrollo. El presente trabajo tiene como objetivo proponer un modelo para el desarrollo de la producción agrícola en el marco de un trabajo integrado sobre el territorio. Para esto se ha analizado los cambios referentes a los procesos de desarrollo rural y como éstos han impactado directamente en la forma en la que se concibe la extensión. En este recorrido podemos ver con claridad cómo los procesos de desarrollo que partían de un modelo exógeno, van cediendo a procesos endógenos y neo-endógenos, en donde el territorio tiene un valor fundamental. Se plantea que tanto la globalización como el Cambio Climático constituyen nuevos desafíos para el desarrollo rural. Posteriormente, en el análisis de la extensión agropecuaria en el mundo, se ha podido observar como la extensión ha ido cambiando hacia procesos más participativos y horizontales, introduciéndose en ella también los conceptos de innovación y de sistemas, como la posibilidad de comprender su complejidad. Al hacer el recorrido de la Extensión Agraria en el Perú se puede visualizar como, al igual que en el mundo, tuo un periodo de apogeo pero seguido de un periodo de crisis que terminó por eliminarla del espacio público. Actualmente los servicios de extensión en el Perú se manejan por entidades privadas, gobiernos locales y proyectos especiales, pero ninguno de ellos llega realmente al pequeño productor, que constituye la población más importante en países como el Perú. Este trabajo plantea un modelo para responder a este contexto, el cual se basa en tres enfoques de diferentes ámbitos: el Desarrollo Económico Local, El metamodelo WWP (Working with people) y los sistemas de innovación agrícolas. El modelo plantea un trabajo en cuatro componentes a señalar: (1) Planificación basada en herramientas técnicas y entendida como aprendizaje social, (2) Fortalecimiento del Capital Social ya existente, (3) Servicios de extensión con nuevas tecnologías y (4) Acompañamiento a los productores en el mercado. En este modelo, una consideración muy especial la tiene la entidad articuladora o bróker del presente sistema, el cual es una entidad que se encarga de activar y mantener el sistema, tomando en consideración la importancia del fortalecimiento de las redes sobre el territorio. La aplicación de este modelo se realizó en cuatro distritos de la provincia de Aymaraes (Región Apurimac) que se encuentran formando parte de la cuenca del Río Pachachaca. Para verificar la idoneidad del modelo en el fortalecimiento de las actividades agropecuarias, se realizó un análisis de una línea de base y de una línea de salida, estableciendo una serie de indicadores. Se realizó también un análisis ex – post para determinar las posibilidades de sostenibilidad del modelo. Se concluyó luego de la aplicación que el modelo tiene una serie de condiciones importantes para la eficacia y la sostenibilidad de los procesos de desarrollo de las actividades agropecuarias, aunque es necesario establecer algunos requisitos básicos para el funcionamiento de la propuesta, tales como la presencia de un actor que pueda actuar como articulador y la necesidad de trabajar a un nivel provincial en lugar de local. ABSTRACT Throughout time, agricultural extension, understood as technology transfer, that had its peak during the Green Revolution, began to show serious deficiencies in its goal of making farmers assume the new technologies. This created continuous research in the area that has generated a number of models and approaches. However, although much has changed, yet it fails to respond adequately to the need for change and innovation that small producers of developing countries have. This study aims to propose a model for the development of agricultural production in the framework of an integrated work on the territory. For this purpose, this research analyzed the changes related to rural development processes and how they have directly impacted on how the extension is conceived. On this tour it can be clearly seen how the development processes that started from an exogenous model, are giving way to neo-endogenous and endogenous processes, where the territory has a fundamental value. It is proposed that both globalization and climate change pose new challenges for rural development. Later in the analysis of agricultural extension in the world, it has been observed how the extension has been changing towards more participatory and horizontal processes, also introducing in it the innovative and systems concepts, as well as the ability to understand its complexity. When making the path of the agricultural extension in Peru, it can be seen how, same as it happened in the world, it had peak period that was followed by a crisis that eventually eliminated it from the public space. Currently, the extension services in Peru are managed by private entities, local governments and special projects, but none of them actually reach the small producer, who represents the most important population in countries like Peru. This paper proposes a model to respond to this context, which is based on three approaches of different areas: Local Economic Development, WWP metamodel (Working with people) and the agricultural innovation systems. The model presents a work in four parts to note: (1) Planning based in technical tools and understood as social learning, (2) Strengthening of the existing social capital, (3) Extension services with new technologies and (4) Support of producers in the market. In this model, special consideration is given to the coordinating entity or broker of this system, which is an entity that is responsible for activating and maintaining the system, taking into account the importance of strengthening networks in the territory. The application of this model was conducted in four districts of the Aymaraes province (Apurimac Region) which are part of the Rio Pachachaca watershed. To verify the suitability of the model in strengthening agricultural activities, an analysis of a baseline and a starting line was made, establishing a series of indicators. An analysis ex-post was also performed to determine the possibilities of sustainability of the model. After the application it was concluded that the model has a number of important conditions for the effectiveness and sustainability of development processes of agricultural activities, although it is necessary to establish some basic requirements for the operation of the proposal, such as the presence of an actor who can act as an articulator and the need to work at a provincial level rather than locally.

Human Trafficking of Women and Children in the Philippines: Challenges and Solutions

Women and children become victims of human trafficking and exploitation as a result of economic globalization, national history, social structures, and geographical positioning. Human trafficking has increasingly become a global crisis of human rights violations, threatening the lives of women and children in developing countries, like the Philippines. The Philippines can evolve into a model for ending the exploitation of human trafficking if the government commits to implementing internationally recognized strategies, such as strengthening the prosecution of traffickers, providing efficient support for victims, and partnering with international organizations and local non-governmental organizations to further prevent human trafficking from occurring. The results will be felt locally, nationally, and internationally, helping the global community meet the challenges of the Millennium Development Goals.

A metasynthesis of qualitative studies regarding opinions and perceptions about barriers and determinants of health services’ accessibility in economic migrants

Background: Access to health services is an important health determinant. New research in health equity is required, especially amongst economic migrants from developing countries. Studies conducted on the use of health services by migrant populations highlight existing gaps in understanding which factors affect access to these services from a qualitative perspective. We aim to describe the views of the migrants regarding barriers and determinants of access to health services in the international literature (1997–2011). Methods: A systematic review was conducted for Qualitative research papers (English/Spanish) published in 13 electronic databases. A selection of articles that accomplished the inclusion criteria and a quality evaluation of the studies were carried out. The findings of the selected studies were synthesised by means of metasynthesis using different analysis categories according to Andersen’s conceptual framework of access and use of health services and by incorporating other emergent categories. Results: We located 3,025 titles, 36 studies achieved the inclusion criteria. After quality evaluation, 28 articles were definitively synthesised. 12 studies (46.2%) were carried out in the U.S and 11 studies (42.3%) dealt with primary care services. The participating population varied depending mainly on type of host country. Barriers were described, such as the lack of communication between health services providers and migrants, due to idiomatic difficulties and cultural differences. Other barriers were linked to the economic system, the health service characteristics and the legislation in each country. This situation has consequences for the lack of health control by migrants and their social vulnerability. Conclusions: Economic migrants faced individual and structural barriers to the health services in host countries, especially those with undocumented situation and those experimented idiomatic difficulties. Strategies to improve the structures of health systems and social policies are needed.

Economic Partnership Agreements in the EU's post-Lome trade regime: negotiations with West Africa. ZEI Discussion Paper C214, 2012

Trade is a key element of the development policy of the European Union (EU). As the most important trading partner of developing countries, the EU attempts to facilitate the participation of developing countries in global trade and contribute to economic growth through providing market access and financial assistance. For twenty-five years, the commitment of the EU was largely focused on its former colonies, more specifically in Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific (ACP). The developing world, in terms of the EU’s trade policy, was therefore divided between ACP states with special provisions under the Lomé Conventions and all other developing countries. With the new millennium, this special relationship came to an end. Pressure from several member states1 and the World Trade Organization (WTO) led to an overhaul of the EU’s trade regime vis-à-vis developing countries and to the loss of the privileged position of ACP countries. The result of this overhaul is still pending. Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs) – to be negotiated between the EU and several ACP regions – have only been realized in the Caribbean. This article will to examine the negotiations between the EU and West Africa and discuss the interests involved on the African side. Following the introduction, the second part of this article is dedicated to the Lomé Conventions with a focus on the change occurring from the third to the fourth revision in order to understand the current situation. The third part is going to take a look at the Cotonou agreement and the trade regime of the EU in general before turning to the negotiations for an Economic Partnership Agreement between the EU and West Africa. The conclusion summarizes the main findings.

The roots of economic challenges facing Egypt in the aftermath of the 25th January revolution. Jean Monnet Occasional Paper No. 9/2014

Introduction. Since the 25th of January 2011 revolution the Egyptian economy has been suffering on all fronts. Almost all the economic indicators have been pointing towards a deteriorating situation, and in many cases have reached the trough. Yet, the economy is still surviving. This is mainly due to the unprecedented support of some of Arab Gulf countries, whose unconditional aid has helped to mitigate the deteriorating economic conditions. The economic challenges facing Egypt have been exacerbated after the 20th of January revolution mainly because of the deteriorating political and security conditions which have interrupted the functioning of the economy. Yet, this is not to say that revolution has caused these challenges. In fact, the challenges that the Egyptian has been facing have deep roots in its socio-political-economic context, which this paper aims to explain. The revolution and its aftermath have brought to the forefront challenges which have always been mitigated by short-term solutions that never dealt seriously with their roots. Moreover, the revolution has brought additional problems associated with the macroeconomic imbalances. As a result, the challenges became more complex especially in light of the need to balance the social and economic aspects. The paper proceeds as follows; in section one we pinpoint the main challenges faced by Egypt where we identify the symptoms and causes of such challenges. In section two we discuss the roots of such challenges. Finally, we conclude and provide our understanding of how Egypt is expected to face its challenges in the near future.

EU Enlargement: external economic implications. Bruges European Economic Policy (BEEP) Briefing 4/2003

Unlike some previous EU enlargements (e.g. with the UK and with Spain/Portugal) the present EU enlargement to Central Europe has not prompted much, let alone a fierce, debate about the external dimension. This BEEP briefing discusses the main economic aspects of the external dimension, in particular whether there is a threat of (how much) trade diversion. Attention is paid to the three main topics of interest for third countries: industrial trade effects, impact on FDI and agricultural trade effects. Agriculture is arguably the most sensitive of the three, given the very high CAP border protection, and although large-scale trade diversion may eventually occur under certain scenarios (such as an unreformed CAP), these fears are greatly exaggerated in the short to medium term (5-7 years): the time frame considered is therefore all-important. This conclusion becomes less surprising if one takes a closer look at the current sorry state of agriculture in the CEECs. Separate sections treat the somewhat sensitive subject of U.S.-CEEC Bilateral Investment Treaties, as well as the longterm development perspective, which addresses the prospects for catch-up growth by the accession countries. In the end, non-European stakeholders in the accession process will greatly benefit from sustained catch-up growth by the CEECs, which are locking-in deep reforms due to EU accession.

Comparison of PRC and Vietnam's Responses to the Elimination of U.S. Textile and Apparel Quotas: Economic and Cultural Perspectives. ACES Working Paper No. 1, 2007

International trade in textiles and apparel has, as of January 1, 2005, been set free from the very intricate Multi-Fiber textile and apparel quota Arrangement (MFA). This event has raised many uncertainties about the new international trade climate and has placed enormous pressure on China as the expected clear cut beneficiary of this liberalization.' Other countries considered to be major contenders include Vietnam which also has a large population employed in the textile and apparel (T&A) sector. Since the old quota system had provided a certain degree of market certainty to competing T&A producers, will the new free trade environment lead to a shake out where mass producers with large economies of scale dominate the new reality? The removal of T&A quotas will create opportunities for Vietnam and China along with other developing countries, but it will also expose them to additional competition from each other. The outcome of this competition will depend on the demand in the US, the ability of the exporting countries to differentiate their exports and on their ability to transfer additional resources to expand domestic output in the direction of the new 'free market signals' and away from rent seeking objectives. Obviously, exporting countries that adjust to this new environment quickly will improve their competitiveness, and will be the new beneficiaries of a quota free international trade in textiles and apparel. This paper attempts to shed some light on the differences and similarities in the responses of Chinese and Vietnamese T&A sectors to this new environment. It first focuses on the demand side attempting to determine whether or not Chinese and Vietnamese T&A items, formally under quota control, are substitutes or compliments. On the supply side, the paper focuses on institutional differences between each country's T&A sectors, the different domestic government policies that have contributed to their growth and the unique cultural differences which will determine the future progress in each country's T&A sectors.

Coalitions, Power and Institutional Change in Global Patent Politics. IES WORKING PAPER 2/2013

With the 1995 Agreement on Trade - related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), a centralised rule - system for the international governance of patents was put in place under the general framework of the World Trade Organisation (WTO). Since then, the number of patent – related institutions has increased monotonically on the multilateral, plurilateral and bilateral levels. I will explain this case of institutional change by focusing on the norm – setting activities of both industrialised and developing countries, arguing that both groups constitute internally highly cohesive coalitions in global patent politics, while institutional change occurs when both coalitions engage in those negotiating settings in which they enjoy a comparative advantage over the other coalition. Specifically, I make the point that industrialised countries’ norm – setting activities take place on the plurilateral and bilateral level, where economic factors can be effectively translated into political outcomes while simultaneously avoiding unacceptably high legitimacy costs; whereas developing countries, on the other hand, use various multilateral United Nations (UN) forums where their claims possess a high degree of legitimacy, but cannot translate into effective political outcomes. The paper concludes with some remarks on how this case yields new insights into ongoing debates in institutionalist International Relations (IR), as pertaining to present discussions on “regime complexity”.

The Eurasian Economic Union – more political, less economic. OSW Commentary Number 157/20.01.2015

The Eurasian Economic Union is undoubtedly the most comprehensive form of economic integration of the post-Soviet countries since the break-up of the Soviet Union. However, the way in which the integration process has been unfolding, as well as Russia’s aggressive policy over the last year, are indications that the EEU has become primarily a political project, and the importance of its economic aspects has eroded. This has triggered a change in the way Kazakhstan and Belarus treat the EEU. Initially, the two countries viewed integration as an opportunity for the development of genuine economic co-operation. However, Russia’s annexation of Crimea and the conflict in Ukraine have revealed the real significance of the EEU project – as a tool to reinforce Russian influence in the post-Soviet area and isolate the post-Soviet countries from the West and China. While the Kremlin presents the EEU as the Eurasian equivalent of the European Union, the project is in reality an imitation of integration. The reasons for this include the nature of the political systems in the participating countries, which are authoritarian, prone to instrumentalise law, and affected by systemic corruption; the aggressive policy that Russia has been pursuing over the last year; and Russia’s dominant role in defining the shape of the EEU. The EEU appears to be based on forceful integration, and is becoming less and less economically attractive for its member countries other than Russia. Moreover, it is clearly assuming a political dimension that those other member countries perceive as dangerous. For these reasons, its functioning will depend on the power and position of Russia. In the longer term it is likely that the other member states will try to ‘sham’ and delay closer integration within the EEU. This means that if Russia becomes politically and economically weaker, the EEU may evolve into an increasingly dysfunctional organisation – a development that will be reinforced by the low standards of legal culture in its member states and their reluctance to integrate. Should Russia’s power increase, the EEU will become an effective instrument of Russian dominance in the area of the former USSR.

A new institutional approach to Japanese firms' foreign direct investment under free trade agreements

This paper examines the determinants of foreign direct investment (FDI) under free trade agreements (FTAs) from a new institutional perspective. First, the determinants of FDI are theoretically discussed from a new institutional perspective. Then, FDI is statistically analyzed at the aggregate level. Kernel density estimation of firm-size reveals some evidence of "structural changes" after FTAs, as characterized by the investing firms' paid-up capital stock. Statistical tests of the average and variance of the size distribution confirm this in the case of FTAs with Asian partner countries. For FTAs with South American partner countries, the presence of FTAs seems to promote larger-scale FDIs. These results remain correlational instead of causal, and more statistical analyses would be needed to infer causality. Policy implications suggest that participants should consider "institutional" aspects of FTAs, that is, the size matters as a determinant of FDI. Future work along this line is needed to study "firm heterogeneity."

Manpower programs and planning in economic development. Prepared for the U. S. International Cooperation Administration, Office of Labor Affairs.

Cover title.

Resolutions Adopted At The Thirty-Fifth Session Of The Economic Commission For Latin America And The Caribbean

Resolution 676(XXXV) ECLAC calendar of conferences for the period 2015-2016 .-- Resolution 677(XXXV) Regional Conference on Women in Latin America and the Caribbean .-- Resolution 678(XXXV) Statistical Conference of the Americas of the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean .-- Resolution 679(XXXV) Support for the work of the Latin American and Caribbean Institute for Economic and Social Planning .-- Resolution 680(XXXV) Caribbean Development and Cooperation Committee .-- Resolution 681(XXXV) Regional Conference on Population and Development in Latin America and the Caribbean .-- Resolution 682(XXXV) Establishment of the Regional Conference on Social Development in Latin America and the Caribbean .-- Resolution 683(XXXV) Admission of Sint Maarten as an associate member of the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean .-- Resolution 684(XXXV) Programme of work and priorities of the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean for the 2016-2017 biennium .-- Resolution 685(XXXV) Activities of the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean in relation to follow-up to the Millennium Development Goals and implementation of the outcomes of the major United Nations conferences and summits in the economic, social and related fields .-- Resolution 686(XXXV) Application of Principle 10 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development in Latin America and the Caribbean .-- Resolution 687(XXXV) The regional dimension of the post-2015 development agenda .-- Resolution 688(XXXV) South-South cooperation .-- resolution 689(XXXV) Place of the next session .-- Resolution 690(XXXV) Lima resolution .-- Resolution 691(XXXV) Ministerial Conference on the Information Society in Latin America and the Caribbean.

Rethinking the "diseases of affluence" paradigm: Global patterns of nutritional risks in relation to economic development

Background Cardiovascular diseases and their nutritional risk factors-including overweight and obesity, elevated blood pressure, and cholesterol-are among the leading causes of global mortality and morbidity, and have been predicted to rise with economic development. Methods and Findings We examined age-standardized mean population levels of body mass index (BMI), systolic blood pressure, and total cholesterol in relation to national income, food share of household expenditure, and urbanization in a cross-country analysis. Data were from a total of over 100 countries and were obtained from systematic reviews of published literature, and from national and international health agencies. BMI and cholesterol increased rapidly in relation to national income, then flattened, and eventually declined. BMI increased most rapidly until an income of about I$5,000 (international dollars) and peaked at about I$12,500 for females and I$17,000 for males. Cholesterol's point of inflection and peak were at higher income levels than those of BMI (about I$8,000 and I$18,000, respectively). There was an inverse relationship between BMI/cholesterol and the food share of household expenditure, and a positive relationship with proportion of population in urban areas. Mean population blood pressure was not correlated or only weakly correlated with the economic factors considered, or with cholesterol and BMI. Conclusions When considered together with evidence on shifts in income-risk relationships within developed countries, the results indicate that cardiovascular disease risks are expected to systematically shift to low-income and middle-income countries and, together with the persistent burden of infectious diseases, further increase global health inequalities. Preventing obesity should be a priority from early stages of economic development, accompanied by population-level and personal interventions for blood pressure and cholesterol.

Do open-cycle hatcheries relying on tourism conserve sea turtles? Sri Lankan developments and economic-ecological considerations

By combining economic analysis of markets with ecological parameters, this article considers the role that tourism-based sea turtle hatcheries (of an open-cycle type) can play in conserving populations of sea turtles. Background is provided on the nature and development of such hatcheries in Sri Lanka. The modeling facilitates the assessment of the impacts of turtle hatcheries on the conservation of sea turtles and enables the economic and ecological consequences of tourism, based on such hatcheries, to be better appreciated. The results demonstrate that sea turtle hatcheries serving tourists can make a positive contribution to sea turtle conservation, but that their conservation effectiveness depends on the way they are managed. Possible negative effects are also identified. Economic market models are combined with turtle population survival relationships to predict the conservation impact of turtle hatcheries and their consequence for the total economic value obtained from sea turtle populations.

Integrating technology and operations in a developing country context

The importance of technology to developing countries is widely recognised as they compete internationally and develop internally. Firms acquire technology by different means and from diverse sources, and they possess varying levels of competence. Since countries are at various stages of economic and technological development, prescriptive approaches to technology and operations integration are not appropriate. The paper discusses factors in the literature that affect the integration of technology and operations in developing countries. Country similarities and differences also play a role, so the study examines three developing countries: Brazil, India and South Africa. These countries are emerging from periods of regulation and have developed certain sectors of their economies. Empirical evidence is provided from a study of managers in South Africa who were asked to assess the important factors in technology integration, and to score the extent to which they can control these. Results from the study concur with the literature regarding the importance of a country’s political stability and its policies towards new investment and infrastructure. Knowledge and understanding of technology are essential for successful integration in countries with insufficient skilled personnel, and where education levels are low.