El estatuto jurídico de los trabajadores nacionales de terceros Estados: especial referencia al Acuerdo de Asociación con Turquía

L'objectiu de la tesi es centra en la definició, en l'àmbit de l'ordenament comunitari, de l'actual estatut jurídic dels treballadors extracomunitaris assalariats que formen part del mercat de treball regular d'un Estat membre. Els treballadors nacionals de tercers països que formen part del mercat de treball regular d'un Estat comunitari, així com els membres de les seves famílies, gaudeixen d'un estatut jurídic fragmentat: els seus drets són variables, depenen de la norma que els regula. En aquest sentit, la situació varia en funció de la llei interna de l'Estat d'acollida, l'existència o no d'acords bilaterals entre l'Estat d'acollida i l'Estat d'origen, i les normes de dret comunitari. Aquesta situació també és diferent atenent a l'existència i el contingut d'un acord extern celebrat per la Comunitat i els seus Estats membres i el país de la nacionalitat de l'immigrant, aquest aspecte centra el present estudi. Els acords que s'analitzen són aquells que juntament amb aspectes econòmics, contenen disposicions relatives als treballadors, i que s'han celebrat, prenent com a base jurídica l'actual article 310 TCE, amb països geogràficament fronterers amb la Unió Europea. D'entre ells, el model a seguir és l'Acord d'Associació amb Turquia, que preveu uns objectius més amplis, com ara la creació d'una unió duanera enfront a la zona de lliure comerç prevista en els altres acords i que s'ha desenvolupat mitjançant les decisions adoptades pel seu Consell d'Associació. Aquest acord ha estat objecte d'una àmplia jurisprudència per part del Tribunal europeu, relativa a l'aplicació i la interpretació de les seves disposicions. A fi de delimitar l'abast de les disposicions de l'Acord, i valorar si es tracta d'un estatut privilegiat respecte del dels altres treballadors extracomunitaris, es comparen les seves disposicions amb les corresponents a les dels acords celebrats amb els països del Magreb, entenent per aquests el Marroc, Tunísia i Algèria i amb els 10 països d' Europa Central i Oriental (els anomenats PECO's). A fi de clarificar l'estatut jurídic dels treballadors extracomunitaris, és necessari entrar a considerar altres aspectes directament relacionats amb aquest estatut, com són les condicions d'accés i de permanència en un Estat, matèries, que, fins a l'entrada en vigor del Tractat d'Amsterdam, eren competència exclusiva de cadascun dels Estats membres. De totes maneres, no es fa un estudi comparatiu de les diferents legislacions internes en matèria d'immigració, donat que l'àmbit d'anàlisi es limita a l'ordenament comunitari, i no a l'ordenament intern. La tesi s'estructura en dues parts diferenciades, correspon la primera als 2 Capítols inicials i la segona als altres 3. En els dos primers Capítols se segueix un criteri cronològic, començant amb el Tractat de Roma i culminant amb el Tractat de Niça. En aquests Capítols s'analitzen les possibles bases jurídiques del dret originari que podien haver-se utilitzat, així com la cooperació que varen fer els Estats membres, tant a dins com a fora, de la Unió Europea, en relació a les mesures adoptades destinades a la regulació de l'accés i de l'estatut jurídic dels treballadors immigrants. L'entrada en vigor, l'1 de maig de 1999 del Tractat d'Amsterdam ha suposat un important avenç per a l'atribució de competències a la Comunitat en matèria d'immigració, que queda vinculada al nou objectiu de la creació de l'espai de llibertat, seguretat i justícia. A partir d'aquest moment, s'assumeix la lliure circulació de persones com objectiu propi, que requereix la regulació del control a les fronteres externes, d'asil, de la immigració i de la cooperació dels Estats membres en la prevenció i la lluita contra la delinqüència. Això es concreta en la comunitarització d'una part del Tercer Pilar destinada a visats, asil i immigració, amb l'exclusió del Regne Unit, Irlanda i Dinamarca, i en la integració del cabal Schengen a l'estructura de la Unió Europea, tot i que permetent una exclusió per al Regne Unit i Irlanda. Es crea, doncs, una cooperació sui generis plena de solucions d'enginyeria jurídica, que si bé suposa un avenç, trenca la unitat i l'homogeneïtat del dret comunitari. Tot i aquestes complexitats tècniques que deriven de la reforma del Tractat d'Amsterdam, el nou article 63 en els seus apartats 3 i 4 permet abordar, a través de la coordinació o de l'harmonització, els temes d'interès comú vinculats al fenomen de la immigració. Entre ells, hi ha la possibilitat d'elaborar un estatut comú per als treballadors no comunitaris. Les iniciatives legislatives presentades des de l'entrada en vigor del Tractat d'Amsterdam demostren l'acceleració en l'elaboració i el desenvolupament d'una política comunitària d'immigració, integrada en uns objectius comuns, per primera vegada sembla realista pensar en l'adopció d'un estatut jurídic únic per l'extracomunitari que sigui resident de llarga durada. Tot i que aquest estatut pot quedar configurat com un estàndard mínim de protecció, considero que la seva adopció constituiria un pas de gran rellevància en la clarificació dels drets d'aquest col·lectiu de treballadors. Els altres tres Capítols conformen la segona part de la tesi, dedicada a analitzar l'actual estatut dels treballadors nacionals de tercers Estats. Aquest estatut es caracteritza pel seu caràcter fragmentat, que deriva de la diversitat de les disposicions contingudes en els acords externs. Mitjançant un estudi comparatiu, s'analitzen els objectius, l'estructura, els antecedents i el desenvolupament dels acords celebrats amb Turquia, amb els països del Magreb i amb els PECO's. El contingut dels objectius d'aquests acords constata que ens trobem davant 3 models diferents que reflecteixen una disminució del compromís comunitari. El Tribunal de Justícia, en la seva jurisprudència, ha manifestat que tant els acords externs celebrats per la Comunitat, com les decisions adoptades pels òrgans que els desenvolupen, formen part de l'ordenament jurídic comunitari. El Tribunal de Justícia és l'òrgan competent per interpretar-los, contribuint a clarificar el contingut d'aquests instruments jurídics. Aquesta perspectiva es completa amb l'anàlisi de les nocions que recullen els acords externs, a fi de dilucidar si un mateix terme té idèntic contingut, i si, tot i la diversitat dels instruments jurídics utilitzats, tenen una mateixa interpretació jurisprudencial. Per aquest motiu ha estat necessari, que el Tribunal de Justícia determinés l'abast dels diferents conceptes emprats, i clarifiqués si és el mateix que el relatiu als treballadors comunitaris o és diferent. La redacció dels acords estudiats reflecteix un estatut jurídic privilegiat per als treballadors turcs en relació als altres treballadors immigrants. Els treballadors originaris dels països d'Europa Central i Oriental o del Magreb, podran millorar la seva situació actual en la mesura en què les disposicions dels seus respectius acords siguin, en el futur, desenvolupades. De totes maneres, aquesta situació de privilegi que ha estat un fet fins el moment actual, ha canviat amb l'entrada en vigor de diferents lleis d'estrangeria estatals, i pot modificar-se, també, amb el desenvolupament del Tractat d'Amsterdam. Actualment, a un treballador turc li perjudica, més que no beneficia el sistema de terminis que per accedir a un lloc de treball preveu la Decisió 1/80. Els treballadors turcs que formen part del mercat regular de treball d'un Estat membre haurien de quedar protegits pel règim jurídic que els sigui més beneficiós, amb independència de que aquest sigui l'intern de l'Estat d'acollida, el comunitari previst a l'Acord d'Associació i el seu posterior desenvolupament, o el que derivi de les futures directives quan entrin en vigor. Si bé aquestes disposicions dels Acords d'Associació varen ser positives, actualment hauran de ser objecte de modificació, la qual cosa no implica la seva desaparició. El seu contingut haurà de tendir a ressaltar l'especificitat de les relacions que es volen establir amb un tercer Estat concret, establint en aquest sentit un tractament preferent als seus nacionals enfront als altres immigrants, i reconeixent el seu dret de residència com derivat del permís de treball. De tota manera, amb l'entrada en vigor de la directiva relativa a l'estatut dels residents de llarga durada, aquest règim privilegiat només afectarà als immigrants residents legals a l'Estat d'acollida durant els primers 5 anys, és a dir, abans de que se'ls concedeixi el citat estatut.

Mosteiro de S. Salvador de Paço de Sousa Contributo para a sua reabilitação arquitetónica

Este trabalho pretende contribuir para a reabilitação do Mosteiro de S. Salvador de Paço de Sousa assente na interpretação espacial do complexo monástico desde a fundação à extinção da comunidade religiosa, com particular nota para a intervenção efetuada pela DGEMN - Direção Geral dos Edifícios e Monumentos Nacionais, no segundo quartel do século XX. Procura trazer pela primeira vez à luz uma representação dos seus espaços, usos e funções ao longo do tempo com recurso a desenhos, esquemas e imagens para permitir a apreensão do conjunto em determinadas fases da história e por consequência fundamentar uma eventual intervenção. O estudo fundamenta-se na recolhe de dados escritos que permitam aferir a vivência dos espaços, sua simbologia e utilidade, nomeadamente através de referências históricas e de carater simbólico e documentação gráfica que permita avaliar e comparar o assunto de estudo com outros exemplos e situações análogas. O cruzamento de dados analisados resulta na sua simbolização gráfica, de forma a veicular o entendimento espacial e simbólico, que remete o real conhecimento da arquitetura do Mosteiro de S. Salvador de Paço de Sousa e, por comparação, viabiliza um ponto de partida para futuras intervenções, seja deste mosteiro, seja de edifícios de características semelhantes.

Technological Solutions Potentially Influencing the Future of Long-Term Care. ENEPRI Research Report No. 114, April 2012

This report provides a forecast of the potential direct and indirect influences of various kinds of technologies on the LTC milieu, answering the following question: from a technology-driven perspective: “Consider each technological solution. What could be its future usage in the LTC sector?” Future technological deployments will induce changes in the respective roles of the care recipient and of the formal and informal carers, with an impact on three major concerns: the transformation of the care recipient into a proactive subject, the augmented potentiality for home care and the new functions that informal carers could assume.

The Future of the Clean Development Mechanism. Note on the report “A Call to Action” of the High-Level Panel on CDM Policy Dialogue. CEPS Special Report No. 71, 20 November 2012

The clean development mechanism (CDM) has been through a long and complex growing process since it was approved as part of the Kyoto Protocol. It was designed within the framework of the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol, and reflected the political and economic realities of that time. To ensure its continued effectiveness in contributing to future global climate action and to reflect on how best to position the CDM to respond to future challenges, a high-level panel (HLP) was formed at the Durban climate change conference in 2011. Following extensive consultations, the panel published its report in September 2012. Through this Special Report, the CEPS Carbon Market Forum offers its reflections on findings and recommendations of the HLP, as well as, by extension, its own views on the future of the CDM. In the context of the latter, it explores the following questions: Is there a need for an instrument such as the CDM in the future? What ‘demand’ can it fill? In the roles identified under the first question, what can be done to adapt it and also continue to increase its efficacy?

The counter-propagating Rossby-wave perspective on baroclinic instability. I: Mathematical basis

It is shown that Bretherton's view of baroclinic instability as the interaction of two counter-propagating Rossby waves (CRWs) can be extended to a general zonal flow and to a general dynamical system based on material conservation of potential vorticity (PV). The two CRWs have zero tilt with both altitude and latitude and are constructed from a pair of growing and decaying normal modes. One CRW has generally large amplitude in regions of positive meridional PV gradient and propagates westwards relative to the flow in such regions. Conversely, the other CRW has large amplitude in regions of negative PV gradient and propagates eastward relative to the zonal flow there. Two methods of construction are described. In the first, more heuristic, method a ‘home-base’ is chosen for each CRW and the other CRW is defined to have zero PV there. Consideration of the PV equation at the two home-bases gives ‘CRW equations’ quantifying the evolution of the amplitudes and phases of both CRWs. They involve only three coefficients describing the mutual interaction of the waves and their self-propagation speeds. These coefficients relate to PV anomalies formed by meridional fluid displacements and the wind induced by these anomalies at the home-bases. In the second method, the CRWs are defined by orthogonality constraints with respect to wave activity and energy growth, avoiding the subjective choice of home-bases. Using these constraints, the same form of CRW equations are obtained from global integrals of the PV equation, but the three coefficients are global integrals that are not so readily described by ‘PV-thinking’ arguments. Each CRW could not continue to exist alone, but together they can describe the time development of any flow whose initial conditions can be described by the pair of growing and decaying normal modes, including the possibility of a super-modal growth rate for a short period. A phase-locking configuration (and normal-mode growth) is possible only if the PV gradient takes opposite signs and the mean zonal wind and the PV gradient are positively correlated in the two distinct regions where the wave activity of each CRW is concentrated. These are easily interpreted local versions of the integral conditions for instability given by Charney and Stern and by Fjørtoft.

A surface energy perspective on climate change

A surface forcing response framework is developed that enables an understanding of time-dependent climate change from a surface energy perspective. The framework allows the separation of fast responses that are unassociated with global-mean surface air temperature change (ΔT), which is included in the forcing, and slow feedbacks that scale with ΔT. The framework is illustrated primarily using 2 × CO2 climate model experiments and is robust across the models. For CO2 increases, the positive downward radiative component of forcing is smaller at the surface than at the tropopause, and so a rapid reduction in the upward surface latent heat (LH) flux is induced to conserve the tropospheric heat budget; this reduces the precipitation rate. Analysis of the time-dependent surface energy balance over sea and land separately reveals that land areas rapidly regain energy balance, and significant land surface warming occurs before global sea temperatures respond. The 2 × CO2 results are compared to a solar increase experiment and show that some fast responses are forcing dependent. In particular, a significant forcing from the fast hydrological response found in the CO2 experiments is much smaller in the solar experiment. The different fast response explains why previous equilibrium studies found differences in the hydrological sensitivity between these two forcings. On longer time scales, as ΔT increases, the net surface longwave and LH fluxes provide positive and negative surface feedbacks, respectively, while the net surface shortwave and sensible heat fluxes change little. It is found that in contrast to their fast responses, the longer-term response of both surface energy fluxes and the global hydrological cycle are similar for the different forcing agents.

Modelling monsoons: understanding and predicting current and future behaviour

The global monsoon system is so varied and complex that understanding and predicting its diverse behaviour remains a challenge that will occupy modellers for many years to come. Despite the difficult task ahead, an improved monsoon modelling capability has been realized through the inclusion of more detailed physics of the climate system and higher resolution in our numerical models. Perhaps the most crucial improvement to date has been the development of coupled ocean-atmosphere models. From subseasonal to interdecadal time scales, only through the inclusion of air-sea interaction can the proper phasing and teleconnections of convection be attained with respect to sea surface temperature variations. Even then, the response to slow variations in remote forcings (e.g., El Niño—Southern Oscillation) does not result in a robust solution, as there are a host of competing modes of variability that must be represented, including those that appear to be chaotic. Understanding the links between monsoons and land surface processes is not as mature as that explored regarding air-sea interactions. A land surface forcing signal appears to dominate the onset of wet season rainfall over the North American monsoon region, though the relative role of ocean versus land forcing remains a topic of investigation in all the monsoon systems. Also, improved forecasts have been made during periods in which additional sounding observations are available for data assimilation. Thus, there is untapped predictability that can only be attained through the development of a more comprehensive observing system for all monsoon regions. Additionally, improved parameterizations - for example, of convection, cloud, radiation, and boundary layer schemes as well as land surface processes - are essential to realize the full potential of monsoon predictability. A more comprehensive assessment is needed of the impact of black carbon aerosols, which may modulate that of other anthropogenic greenhouse gases. Dynamical considerations require ever increased horizontal resolution (probably to 0.5 degree or higher) in order to resolve many monsoon features including, but not limited to, the Mei-Yu/Baiu sudden onset and withdrawal, low-level jet orientation and variability, and orographic forced rainfall. Under anthropogenic climate change many competing factors complicate making robust projections of monsoon changes. Absent aerosol effects, increased land-sea temperature contrast suggests strengthened monsoon circulation due to climate change. However, increased aerosol emissions will reflect more solar radiation back to space, which may temper or even reduce the strength of monsoon circulations compared to the present day. Precipitation may behave independently from the circulation under warming conditions in which an increased atmospheric moisture loading, based purely on thermodynamic considerations, could result in increased monsoon rainfall under climate change. The challenge to improve model parameterizations and include more complex processes and feedbacks pushes computing resources to their limit, thus requiring continuous upgrades of computational infrastructure to ensure progress in understanding and predicting current and future behaviour of monsoons.

Past, present and future precipitation in the Middle East: insights from models and observations

Anthropogenic changes in precipitation pose a serious threat to society—particularly in regions such as the Middle East that already face serious water shortages. However, climate model projections of regional precipitation remain highly uncertain. Moreover, standard resolution climate models have particular difficulty representing precipitation in the Middle East, which is modulated by complex topography, inland water bodies and proximity to the Mediterranean Sea. Here we compare precipitation changes over the twenty-first century against both millennial variability during the Holocene and interannual variability in the present day. In order to assess the climate model and to make consistent comparisons, this study uses new regional climate model simulations of the past, present and future in conjunction with proxy and historical observations. We show that the pattern of precipitation change within Europe and the Middle East projected by the end of the twenty-first century has some similarities to that which occurred during the Holocene. In both cases, a poleward shift of the North Atlantic storm track and a weakening of the Mediterranean storm track appear to cause decreased winter rainfall in southern Europe and the Middle East and increased rainfall further north. In contrast, on an interannual time scale, anomalously dry seasons in the Middle East are associated with a strengthening and focusing of the storm track in the north Mediterranean and hence wet conditions throughout southern Europe.

A singular vector perspective of 4DVAR: The spatial structure and evolution of baroclinic weather systems

The extent to which the four-dimensional variational data assimilation (4DVAR) is able to use information about the time evolution of the atmosphere to infer the vertical spatial structure of baroclinic weather systems is investigated. The singular value decomposition (SVD) of the 4DVAR observability matrix is introduced as a novel technique to examine the spatial structure of analysis increments. Specific results are illustrated using 4DVAR analyses and SVD within an idealized 2D Eady model setting. Three different aspects are investigated. The first aspect considers correcting errors that result in normal-mode growth or decay. The results show that 4DVAR performs well at correcting growing errors but not decaying errors. Although it is possible for 4DVAR to correct decaying errors, the assimilation of observations can be detrimental to a forecast because 4DVAR is likely to add growing errors instead of correcting decaying errors. The second aspect shows that the singular values of the observability matrix are a useful tool to identify the optimal spatial and temporal locations for the observations. The results show that the ability to extract the time-evolution information can be maximized by placing the observations far apart in time. The third aspect considers correcting errors that result in nonmodal rapid growth. 4DVAR is able to use the model dynamics to infer some of the vertical structure. However, the specification of the case-dependent background error variances plays a crucial role.

A singular vector perspective of 4D-Var: Filtering and interpolation

Four-dimensional variational data assimilation (4D-Var) combines the information from a time sequence of observations with the model dynamics and a background state to produce an analysis. In this paper, a new mathematical insight into the behaviour of 4D-Var is gained from an extension of concepts that are used to assess the qualitative information content of observations in satellite retrievals. It is shown that the 4D-Var analysis increments can be written as a linear combination of the singular vectors of a matrix which is a function of both the observational and the forecast model systems. This formulation is used to consider the filtering and interpolating aspects of 4D-Var using idealized case-studies based on a simple model of baroclinic instability. The results of the 4D-Var case-studies exhibit the reconstruction of the state in unobserved regions as a consequence of the interpolation of observations through time. The results also exhibit the filtering of components with small spatial scales that correspond to noise, and the filtering of structures in unobserved regions. The singular vector perspective gives a very clear view of this filtering and interpolating by the 4D-Var algorithm and shows that the appropriate specification of the a priori statistics is vital to extract the largest possible amount of useful information from the observations. Copyright © 2005 Royal Meteorological Society

Ice-sheet contributions to future sea-level change

Accurate simulation of ice-sheet surface mass balance requires higher spatial resolution than is afforded by typical atmosphere-ocean general circulation models (AOGCMs), owing, in particular, to the need to resolve the narrow and steep margins where the majority of precipitation and ablation occurs. We have developed a method for calculating mass-balance changes by combining ice-sheet average time-series from AOGCM projections for future centuries, both with information from high-resolution climate models run for short periods and with a 20 km ice-sheet mass-balance model. Antarctica contributes negatively to sea level on account of increased accumulation, while Greenland contributes positively because ablation increases more rapidly. The uncertainty in the results is about 20% for Antarctica and 35% for Greenland. Changes in ice-sheet topography and dynamics are not included, but we discuss their possible effects. For an annual- and area-average warming exceeding 4.5 +/- 0.9 K in Greenland and 3.1 +/- 0.8 K in the global average, the net surface mass balance of the Greenland ice sheet becomes negative, in which case it is likely that the ice sheet would eventually be eliminated, raising global-average sea level by 7 m.

Long-term perspective of agile methods

Even if we have recognized many short-term benefits of agile methods, we still know very little about their long-term effects. In this panel, we discuss the long-term perspective of the agile methods. The panelists are either industrial or academic representatives. They will discuss problems and benefits related to the long-term lifecycle system management in agile projects. Ideally, the panel’s outcome will provide ideas for future research.

How could construction supply chain benefit from RFID/GPS integration: a knowledge management perspective

Construction materials and equipment are essential building blocks of every construction project and may account for 50-60 per cent of the total cost of construction. The rate of their utilization, on the other hand, is the element that most directly relates to a project progress. A growing concern in the industry that inadequate efficiency hinders its success could thus be accommodated by turning construction into a logistic process. Although mostly limited, recent attempts and studies show that Radio Frequency IDentification (RFID) applications have significant potentials in construction. However, the aim of this research is to show that the technology itself should not only be used for automation and tracking to overcome the supply chain complexity but also as a tool to generate, record and exchange process-related knowledge among the supply chain stakeholders. This would enable all involved parties to identify and understand consequences of any forthcoming difficulties and react accordingly before they cause major disruptions in the construction process. In order to achieve this aim the study focuses on a number of methods. First of all it develops a generic understanding of how RFID technology has been used in logistic processes in industrial supply chain management. Secondly, it investigates recent applications of RFID as an information and communication technology support facility in construction logistics for the management of construction supply chain. Based on these the study develops an improved concept of a construction logistics architecture that explicitly relies on integrating RFID with the Global Positioning System (GPS). The developed conceptual model architecture shows that categorisation provided through RFID and traceability as a result of RFID/GPS integration could be used as a tool to identify, record and share potential problems and thus vastly improve knowledge management processes within the entire supply chain. The findings thus clearly show a need for future research in this area.