Closing the gender gap in Bangladesh: Inequality in education, employment and earnings

Assesses the status of women in Bangladesh by analysing the dynamics of female participation in labour force and education as well as gender earnings differentials at the macro level. The study finds evidence of growing commercialisation of women’s work in Bangladesh. Although the bulk of the female labour force is engaged in self-employment activities in the rural area or in low-skilled textile and readymade garment industries in the urban area, women’s participation in high-skill and entrepreneurial jobs as well as various decision-making bodies is also on the rise. While the gender wage differentials have been considerably reduced in many industries, in general women tend to be paid less than men. There have been remarkable improvements in women’s educational attainments compared to men. Further, female access to education is found to be highly correlated with overall female labour force participation, and relative to male participation. The overall results are suggestive of an improvement in the status of women in Bangladesh.

Does workforce participation empower women? Micro-level evidence from urban Bangladesh

Empirical studies on the impact of women’s paid jobs on their empowerment and welfare in the Bangladesh context are rare. The few studies on the issue to date have all been confined to the garment workers only although studies indicate that women’s workforce participation in Bangladesh has increased across-the-board. Besides, none of these studies has made an attempt to control for the non-working women and/or applied any statistical technique to control for the effects of other pertinent determinants of women’s empowerment and welfare such as education, age, religion and place of living. This study overcomes these drawbacks and presents alternative assessments of the link between women’s workforce participation and empowerment on the basis of survey data from the two largest cities in Bangladesh. While the generic assessment indicates that women’s paid jobs have positive implications for women’s participation in decisions on fertility, children’s education and healthcare as well as their possession and control of resources, the econometric assessment negates most of these observations. Women’s education, on the other hand, appears to be more important than their participation in the labour force. The study underlines the fact that by omitting other relevant explanatory variables from the analysis, the previous studies might have overestimated the impact of women’s paid work on their empowerment. Among other things, the paper also highlights the importance of women’s job category, religion and regional differences for women’s empowerment.

Education's role in economic development and in assisting the poor

Much faith has been put in the increased supply of education as a means to promote national economic development and as a way to assist the poor and the disadvantaged. However, the benefits that nations can obtain by increasing the level of education of their workforce depends on the availability of other forms of capital to complement the use of its educated workforce in production. Generally, less developed nations are lacking in complementary capital compared to more developed ones and it is appropriate for less developed countries to spend relatively less on education. The contribution of education to economic growth depends on a nation’s stage of economic development. It is only when a nation becomes relatively developed that education becomes a major contributor to economic growth. It is possible for less developed nations to retard their economic growth by favouring investment in educational capital rather than other forms of capital. Easy access to education is often portrayed as a powerful force for assisting the poor and the disadvantaged. Several reasons are given here as to why it may not be so effective in assisting the poor and in promoting greater income equality even though the aim is a worthy one. Also, an economic argument is presented in favour of special education for the physically and mentally handicapped. This paper is not intended to belittle the contribution of education to economic development nor to devalue the ideal of making basic education available to all. Instead, it is intended as an antidote to inflated claims about the ability of greater investment in education to promote economic growth and about the ability of more widespread access to education to reduce poverty and decrease income inequality.

Modelling basin level allocation of water in the Murray-Darling Basin in a world of uncertainty, Murray-Darling Program Working Papers WPM05-1, Risk and Sustainable Management Group, 8 February 2005

Abstract: The Murray-Darling Basin comprises over 1 million km2; it lies within four states and one territory; and over 12, 800 GL of irrigation water is used to produce over 40% of the nation's gross value of agricultural production. This production is used by a diverse collection of some-times mutually exclusive commodities (e.g. pasture; stone fruit; grapes; cotton and field crops). The supply of water for irrigation is subject to climatic and policy uncertainty. Variable inflows mean that water property rights do not provide a guaranteed supply. With increasing public scrutiny and environmental issues facing irrigators, greater pressure is being placed on this finite resource. The uncertainty of the water supply, water quality (salinity), combined with where water is utilised, while attempting to maximising return for investment makes for an interesting research field. The utilisation and comparison of a GAMS and Excel based modelling approach has been used to ask: where should we allocate water?; amongst what commodities?; and how does this affect both the quantity of water and the quality of water along the Murray-Darling river system?

Features of colorectal cancers with high-level microsatellite instability occurring in familial and sporadic settings

High-level microsatellite instability (AISI-H) is demonstrated in 10 to 15% of sporadic colorectal cancers and in most cancers presenting In the inherited condition hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC). Distinction between these categories of MSI-H cancer is of clinical importance and the aim of this study was to assess clinical, pathological, and molecular features that might he discriminatory. One hundred and twelve MSI-H colorectal cancers from families fulfilling the Bethesda criteria were compared with 57 sporadic MSI-H colorectal cancers. HNPCC cancers presented at a lower age (P < 0.001) with no sporadic MSI-H cancer being diagnosed before the age of 57 years. MSI was less extensive in HNPCC cancers with 72% microsatellite markers showing band shifts compared with 87% in sporadic tumors (P < 0.001). Absent immunostaining for hMSH2 was only found in HNPCC tumors. Methylation of bMLH1 was observed in 87% of sporadic cancers but also in 55% of HNPCC tumors that showed loss of expression of hMLH1 (P = 0.02). HNPCC cancers were more frequently characterized by aberrant beta -catenin immunostaining as evidenced by nuclear positivity (P < 0.001). Aberrant p53 immunostaining was infrequent in both groups. There were no differences with respect to 5q loss of heterozygosity or codon 12 K-ras mutation, which were infrequent in both groups. Sporadic MSI-H cancers were more frequently heterogeneous (P < 0.001), poorly differentiated (P = 0.02), mucinous (P = 0.02), and proximally located (P = 0.04) than RNPCC tumors. In sporadic MSI-H cancers, contiguous adenomas were likely to be serrated whereas traditional adenomas were dominant in HNPCC. Lymphocytic infiltration was more pronounced in HNPCC but the results did not reach statistical significance. Overall, HNPCC cancers were more like common colorectal cancer in terms of morphology and expression of beta -catenin whereas sporadic MSI-H cancers displayed features consistent with a different morphogenesis. No individual feature was discriminatory for all RN-PCC cancers. However, a model based on four features was able to classify 94.5% of tumors as sporadic or HNPCC. The finding of multiple differences between sporadic and familial MSI-H colorectal cancer with respect to both genotype and phenotype is consistent with tumorigenesis through parallel evolutionary pathways and emphasizes the importance of studying the two groups separately.

Methylation of O-6-methylguanine DNA methyltransferase characterizes a subset of colorectal cancer with low-level DNA microsatellite instability

The significance of low-level DNA microsatellite instability (MSI-L) is not well understood. K-ras mutation is associated with MSI-L colorectal cancer and with the silencing of the DNA repair gene O-6-methylguanine DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) by methylation of its promoter region. MGMT methylation was studied in sporadic colorectal cancers stratified as DNA microsatellite instability-high (n = 23), MSI-L (n = 44), and microsatellite-stable (n = 23). Methylation-specific PCR was used to detect MGMT-promoter hypermethylation in 3 of 23 (13%) microsatellite instability-high, in 28 of 44 (64%) MSI-L, and in 6 of 23 (26%) microsatellite-stable cancers (P = 0.0001). K-ras was mutated in 20 of 29 (69%) methylated MSI-L cancers and in 2 of 15 (13%) unmethylated MSI-L cancers (P = 0.001), indicating a relationship between MGMT-methylation and mutation of K-ras. Loss of nuclear expression of MGMT was demonstrated immunohistochemically in 23 of 31 (74%) cancers with methylated MGMT and in 10 of 49 (20%) cancers with nonmethylated MGMT (P < 0.0001). Loss of expression of MGMT was also demonstrated in 9 of 31 serrated polyps. Silencing of MGMT may predispose to mutation by overwhelming the DNA mismatch repair system and occurs with greatest frequency in MSI-L colorectal cancers.

Proliferation, apoptosis, and survival in high-level microsatellite instability sporadic colorectal cancer

Sporadic colorectal cancer (CRC) characterized by high-level DNA microsatellite instability (MSI-H) has a favorable prognosis. The reason for this MSI-H survival advantage is not known. The aim of this study was to correlate proliferation, apoptosis, and prognosis in CRC stratified by MSI status. The proliferative index (PI) was measured by immunohistochemical staining with the Ki-67 antibody in a selected series of 100 sporadic colorectal cancers classified according to the level of MSI as 31 MSI-H, 29 MSI-Low (MSI-L), and 40 microsatellite stable (MISS). The Ki-67 index was significantly higher in MSI-H cancers (P < 0.0001) in which the PI was 90.1 1.2% (mean +/- SE) compared with 69.5 +/- 3.1 % and 69.5 +/- 2.3 % in MSI-L and MSS subgroups, respectively. There was a positive linear correlation between the apoptotic index (AI) and PI (r = 0.51; P < 0.001), with MSI-H cancers demonstrating an increased AI:PI ratio indicative of a lower index of cell production. A high PI showed a trend toward predicting improved survival within MSI-H cancers (P = 0.09) but did not predict survival in MSI-L or MSS cancers. The Al was not associated with survival in any MSI subgroup. In conclusion, this is the first study to show that sporadic MSI-H cancers are characterized by a higher AL:PI ratio and increased proliferative activity compared with MSI-L and MSS cancers, and that an elevated PI may confer a survival advantage within the MSI-H subset.

High frequency of low-level microsatellite instability in early colorectal cancer

Molecular events in early colorectal cancers (CRCs) have not been well elucidated because of the low incidence of early CRCs in clinical practice. Therefore, we studied 104 sporadic early CRCs with invasion limited to submucosa compared with 116 advanced CRCs. Loss of heterozygosity as well as microsatellite instability (MSI) status was examined. A significantly high frequency of low-level MSI (MSI-L) phenotype was detected in early CRCs (51.0%) compared with advanced CRCs (25.9%; P = 0.0001). In early and advanced CRCs, samples with MSI-L phenotype differed from microsatellite stable (MSS) phenotype with respect to loss of heterozygosity at 1p32 and 8p12-22. MSI-L is a frequent genetic event in early CRCs and may be a novel pathway in colorectal carcinogenesis distinct from both MSI-H and MSS.

Changes in conceptions of learning for indigenous Australian university students

Background. Conceptions of learning have been investigated for students in higher. education in different countries. Some studies found that students' conceptions change and develop over time while others have found no changes. Investigating conceptions of learning for Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander university students is a relatively new area of research. Aims. This study set out to investigate conceptions of learning for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander university students during the first two years of their undergraduate degree courses in three Australian universities. Conceptions for each year were compared. Knowing, more about learning as conceived by this cultural group may facilitate more productive higher educational experiences. Sample. The sample comprised 17 students studying various degrees; Il were male and 6 were female. Ages ranged from 18 to 48 years; mean age was 26 years. Method. This was a phenomenographic, longitudinal study. Individual semistructured interviews were conducted each year to ascertain students' conceptions of learning. Conceptions for second year were derived independently of those From first year. A comparative analysis then took place to determine ally changes. Results. These students held conceptions of learning that were similar to those of other university students; however there were some intrinsic differences. On a group level, conceptions changed somewhat over the two years as did core conceptions reported by some individual students. Some students also exhibited a greater awareness of learning during their second year that resulted in three dimensions of changed awareness. Conclusions. We believe the changed conceptions and awareness resulted from learning at university where there is some need to understand and explain phenomena in relation to theory. This brought about new understandings which allowed students to see their own learning in a relational sense.

Occupational aspirations of sixth-grade children

The present study examined the occupational aspirations of sixth-grade children in terms of occupational category, minimum education level and gender. In addition, the study identified the sources of occupational information used by the children and the factors they thought could influence them toward or away from a job. The study found that all of the children were able to express occupational aspirations. While the children obtained occupational information from a range of sources, including the media and family, the source most likely to influence them toward or away from choosing a job was family.

Low Level Laser Effects On Pain to Palpation and Electromyographic Activity in TMD Patients: A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Study

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of diode laser (GaAlAs - 780 nm) on pain to palpation and electromyographic (EMG) activity of the masseter and anterior temporalis muscles. The laser was applied on the temporalis and masseter muscles twice a week (four weeks). Forty-eight (48) patients with myofascial pain were randomly assigned between actual and placebo treatments and between the energetic doses of 25 J/cm(2) and 60 J/cm(2), and were evaluated using VAS before, immediately after the final application, and 30 days after the laser treatment. Surface electromyography was performed with maximum dental clenching before and after laser therapy. The results show there were no significant statistical differences in the EMG activity between the groups before and after laser treatment. With regard to the pain at palpation, although both groups presented a significant difference in the symptoms before and after the treatment, only the active doses showed statistically significant reductions in pain level in all the regions of the palpated muscles. However, there was no significant statistical difference between groups (experimental and placebo). In conclusion, low level laser did not promote any changes in EMG activity. The treatment did, however, lessen the pain symptoms in the experimental groups.

Low-level lead exposure and children

The adverse effects of environmental lead exposure on the mental development of young children are well established. There is no safe level of blood lead below which children are not affected. Recent research expands our understanding of the impact of lead exposure continuing into later childhood, as well as its effects on children's behaviour. However, social and other environmental factors also contribute to variance in measures of developmental and behavioural outcomes. Lead is associated with only modest effects on children's development, but is a potentially modifiable risk factor. As environmental exposure to lead declines for the whole population, continued specific attention is needed for children living in industrial areas.