Design, synthesis and biologival evaluation of novel isoniazid derivatives with potente antitubercular activity

The disturbing emergence of multidrug-resistant strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) has been driving the scientific community to urgently search for new and efficient antitubercular drugs. Despite the various drugs currently under evaluation, isoniazid is still the key and most effective component in all multi-therapeutic regimens recommended by the WHO. This paper describes the QSAR-oriented design, synthesis and in vitro antitubercular activity of several potent isoniazid derivatives (isonicotinoyl hydrazones and isonicotinoyl hydrazides) against H37Rv and two resistant Mtb strains. QSAR studies entailed RFs and ASNNs classification models, as well as MLR models. Strict validation procedures were used to guarantee the models' robustness and predictive ability. Lipophilicity was shown not to be relevant to explain the activity of these derivatives, whereas shorter N-N distances and lengthy substituents lead to more active compounds. Compounds I, 2, 4, 5 and 6, showed measured activities against H37Rv higher than INH (i.e., MIC <= 0.28 mu M), while compound 9 exhibited a six fold decrease in MIC against the katG (S315T) mutated strain, by comparison with INH (Le., 6.9 vs. 43.8 mu M). All compounds were ineffective against H37Rv(INH) (Delta katG), a strain with a full deletion of the katG gene, thus corroborating the importance of KatG in the activation of INH-based compounds. The most potent compounds were also shown not to be cytotoxic up to a concentration 500 times higher than MIC. (C) 2014 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

Aspectos clínicos e sorológicos de 47 pacientes com paracoccidioidomicose tratados pela anfotericina B

In the present study, clinic and serologic aspects of 47 paracoccidioidomycosis patients were reviewed. The clinic-radiologie-laboratorial data of each patient were obtained from the medical chart before, during and after therapy with Amphotericin B. The age of the patients ranged between 13 to 50 years; the ratio male: female was 10:1. The most frequently associated diseases were alcoholism and tabagism; tuberculosis was present in 14.2% of the cases. Most patients came from Botucatu of adjacent towns (central area of the State of São Paulo). Cough with sputum production, dyspnea and anorexia were the most frequent clinic manifestations. All 47 patients, but 5 presented pulmonary involvement which showed the radiologic pattern of interstitial exudate nodular type and fibrocicatritial lesions in 85.7%. There was associated emphysema in 37.7% of the patients. Blood urea, creatinin and kaliemia increased during therapy with Amphotericin B. Clinic-laboratorial follow-up showed electrocardiographic changes in 13, hypertension in 9 and hyperreactivity in Thorn test in 1 patient. Complement fixation was the best serologic test for monitoring patients with paracoccidioidomycosis. Incomplete dosage of Amphotericin B led to therapeutic ineffectivenes.

Prevalence of antibody to hepatitis B virus in an urban population of northeast Brazil

A sample of 1,288 inhabitants of Salvador, Bahia, Brazil, were submitted to the determination of anti-HBs using radioimmunoassay procedure, and analysed according to age, sex and income. Overall prevalence of anti-HBs was 11,8%. ranging from 6,7% among children aged less than three years old to 26,1% among those aged 30 years and older. Males presented prevalence of anti-HBs similar to female individuals, and those with a higher income showed frequencies of anti-HBs greater than those with a lower income level. The following conclusions were drawn: The high prevalence of anti-HBs observed among children suggests early contact with hepatitis B virus, possibly due to vertical transmission and intrafamiliar dissemination of the disease; the frequency of anti-HBs increases with age; the lower prevalence of anti-HBs among those with low income suggests that this group may present higher prevalence of carriers of the hepatitis B virus surface antigen.

Predictive value of serologic tests in the diagnosis and follow-up of patients with paracoccidioidomycosis

A serologic study was undertaken in a group of 43 patients with active paracoccidioidomycosis who were treated in the same form (ketoconazole), for identical periods of time (6 months), and folio wed-up for various periods posttherapy. The tests employed were agar gel immunodiffusion (AGID) and complement fixation (FC). Also studied were 50 sera from patients with proven histoplasmosis and pulmonary aspergilloma, 30 patients with culturaly proven tuberculosis as well as 92 specimens from healthy individuals, residents in the endemic area for paracoccidioidomycosis. A single lot of yeast filtrate antigen was used throughout the study. The value of each test was measured according to GALEN and GAMBINO6. Both tests were highly sensitive, 89 and 93% respectively. Regarding their specificity, the AGID was totally specific while the CF exhibited 96.6% and 97% specificity in front of tuberculosis patients and healthy individuals respectively and 82% in comparison with patients with other mycoses. The concept of predictive value, that is, the certainty one has in accepting a positive test as diagnostic of paracoccidioidomycosis, favored the AGID procedure (100%) over the CF test. The latter could sort out with 93% certainty a patient with paracoccidioidomycosis among a group of healthy individuals and with 97.5% in the case of TB patients; when the group in question was composed by individuals with other deep mycoses, such certainty was lower (81%). The above results indicate that both the AGID and the CF tests furnish results of high confidence; one should not relay, however, in the CF alone as a means to establish the specific diagnosis of paracoccidioidomycosis.

Standardization of dot-ELISA for the serological diagnosis of toxocariasis and comparision of the assay with ELISA

The dot-enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (dot-ELISA) was standardized using somatic (S) and excretory-secretory (ES) antigens of Toxocara-canis for the detection of specific antibodies in 22 serum samples from children aged 1 to 15 years, with clinical signs of toxocariasis. Fourteen serum samples from apparently normal individuals and 28 sera from patients with other pathologies were used as controls. All samples were used before and after absorption with Ascaris suum extract. When the results were evaluated in comparison with ELISA, the two tests were found to have similar sensitivity, but dot-ELISA was found to be more specific in the presence of the two antigens studied. Dot-ELISA proved to be effective for the diagnosis of human toxocariasis, presenting advantages in terms of yield, stability, time and ease of execution and low cost.

Trace metals in size-fractionated particulate matter in a Portuguese hospital: exposure risks assessment and comparisons with other countries

Hospitals are considered as a special and important type of indoor public place where air quality has significant impacts on potential health outcomes. Information on indoor air quality of these environments, concerning exposures to particulate matter (PM) and related toxicity, is limited though. This work aims to evaluate risks associated with inhalation exposure to ten toxic metals and chlorine (As, Ni, Cr, Cd, Pb, Mn, Se, Ba, Al, Si, and Cl) in coarse (PM2.5–10) and fine (PM2.5) particles in a Portuguese hospital in comparison with studies representative of other countries. Samples were collected during 1 month in one urban hospital; elemental PM characterization was determined by proton-induced X-ray emission. Noncarcinogenic and carcinogenic risks were assessed according to the methodology provided by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA; Region III Risk-Based Concentration Table) for three different age categories of hospital personnel (adults, >20, and <65 years) and patients (considering nine different age groups, i.e., children of 1–3 years to seniors of >65 years). The estimated noncarcinogenic risks due to occupational inhalation exposure to PM2.5-bound metals ranged from 5.88×10−6 for Se (adults, 55–64 years) to 9.35×10−1 for As (adults, 20–24 years) with total noncarcinogenic risks (sum of all metals) above the safe level for all three age categories. As and Cl (the latter due to its high abundances) were the most important contributors (approximately 90 %) to noncarcinogenic risks. For PM2.5–10, noncarcinogenic risks of all metals were acceptable to all age groups. Concerning carcinogenic risks, for Ni and Pb, they were negligible (<1×10−6) in both PM fractions for all age groups of hospital personnel; potential risks were observed for As and Cr with values in PM2.5 exceeding (up to 62 and 5 times, respectively) USEPA guideline across all age groups; for PM2.5–10, increased excess risks of As and Cr were observed particularly for long-term exposures (adults, 55–64 years). Total carcinogenic risks highly (up to 67 times) exceeded the recommended level for all age groups, thus clearly showing that occupational exposure to metals in fine particles pose significant risks. If the extensive working hours of hospital medical staff were considered, the respective noncarcinogenic and carcinogenic risks were increased, the latter for PM2.5 exceeding the USEPA cumulative guideline of 10−4. For adult patients, the estimated noncarcinogenic and carcinogenic risks were approximately three times higher than for personnel, with particular concerns observed for children and adolescents.

Microencapsulation of herbicide MCPA with native beta-cyclodextrin and its methyl and hydroxypropyl derivatives: An experimental and theoretical investigation

When a pesticide is released into the environment, most of it is lost before it reaches its target. An effective way to reduce environmental losses of pesticides is by using controlled release technology. Microencapsulation becomes a promising technique for the production of controlled release agricultural formulations. In this work, the microencapsulation of chlorophenoxy herbicide MCPA with native b-cyclodextrin and its methyl and hydroxypropyl derivatives was investigated. The phase solubility study showed that both native and b-CD derivatives increased the water solubility of the herbicide and inclusion complexes are formed in a stoichiometric ratio of 1:1. The stability constants describing the extent of formation of the complexes have been determined by phase solubility studies. 1H NMR experiments were also accomplished for the prepared solid systems and the data gathered confirm the formation of the inclusion complexes. 1H NMR data obtained for the MCPA/CDs complexes disclosed noticeable proton shift displacements for OCH2 group and H6 aromatic proton of MCPA provided clear evidence of inclusion complexation process, suggesting that the phenyl moiety of the herbicide was included in the hydrophobic cavity of CDs. Free energy molecular mechanics calculations confirm all these findings. The gathered results can be regarded as an essential step to the development of controlled release agricultural formulations containing herbicide MCPA.

Layerwise mixed models for analysis of multilayered piezoelectric composite plates using least-squares formulation

This work provides an assessment of layerwise mixed models using least-squares formulation for the coupled electromechanical static analysis of multilayered plates. In agreement with three-dimensional (3D) exact solutions, due to compatibility and equilibrium conditions at the layers interfaces, certain mechanical and electrical variables must fulfill interlaminar C-0 continuity, namely: displacements, in-plane strains, transverse stresses, electric potential, in-plane electric field components and transverse electric displacement (if no potential is imposed between layers). Hence, two layerwise mixed least-squares models are here investigated, with two different sets of chosen independent variables: Model A, developed earlier, fulfills a priori the interiaminar C-0 continuity of all those aforementioned variables, taken as independent variables; Model B, here newly developed, rather reduces the number of independent variables, but also fulfills a priori the interlaminar C-0 continuity of displacements, transverse stresses, electric potential and transverse electric displacement, taken as independent variables. The predictive capabilities of both models are assessed by comparison with 3D exact solutions, considering multilayered piezoelectric composite plates of different aspect ratios, under an applied transverse load or surface potential. It is shown that both models are able to predict an accurate quasi-3D description of the static electromechanical analysis of multilayered plates for all aspect ratios.

Uma abordagem à incorporação de lenhinosulfonatos e materiais reciclados em misturas de SBR para produção sustentável de solas

Mestrado em Engenharia Química - Ramo Otimização Energética na Indústria Química

Viscosity and self-diffusion coefficients of dialkyl adipates: a correlation scheme with predictive capabilities

A correlation and predictive scheme for the viscosity and self-diffusivity of liquid dialkyl adipates is presented. The scheme is based on the kinetic theory for dense hard-sphere fluids, applied to the van der Waals model of a liquid to predict the transport properties. A "universal" curve for a dimensionless viscosity of dialkyl adipates was obtained using recently published experimental viscosity and density data of compressed liquid dimethyl (DMA), dipropyl (DPA), and dibutyl (DBA) adipates. The experimental data are described by the correlation scheme with a root-mean-square deviation of +/- 0.34 %. The parameters describing the temperature dependence of the characteristic volume, V-0, and the roughness parameter, R-eta, for each adipate are well correlated with one single molecular parameter. Recently published experimental self-diffusion coefficients of the same set of liquid dialkyl adipates at atmospheric pressure were correlated using the characteristic volumes obtained from the viscosity data. The roughness factors, R-D, are well correlated with the same single molecular parameter found for viscosity. The root-mean-square deviation of the data from the correlation is less than 1.07 %. Tests are presented in order to assess the capability of the correlation scheme to estimate the viscosity of compressed liquid diethyl adipate (DEA) in a range of temperatures and pressures by comparison with literature data and of its self-diffusivity at atmospheric pressure in a range of temperatures. It is noteworthy that no data for DEA were used to build the correlation scheme. The deviations encountered between predicted and experimental data for the viscosity and self-diffusivity do not exceed 2.0 % and 2.2 %, respectively, which are commensurate with the estimated experimental measurement uncertainty, in both cases.

Functional significance of adenosine in carotid body chemosensory activity in control and chronically hypoxic animals

ABSTRACT: Carotid bodies (CB) are peripheral chemoreceptor organs sensing changes in arterial blood O2, CO2 and pH levels. Hypoxia and acidosis or hypercapnia activates CB chemoreceptor cells, which respond by releasing neurotransmitters in order to increase the action potential frequency in their sensory nerve, the carotid sinus nerve (CSN). CSN activity is integrated in the brainstem to induce a fan of cardiorespiratory reflex responses, aimed at normalising the altered blood gases. Exogenously applied adenosine (Ado) increases CSN chemosensory activity inducing hyperventilation through activation of A2 receptors. The importance of the effects of adenosine in chemoreception was reinforced by data obtained in humans, in which the intravenous infusion of Ado causes hyperventilation and dyspnoea, an effect that has been attributed to the activation of CB because Ado does not cross blood-brain barrier and because the ventilatory effects are higher the closer to the CB it is injected. The present work was performed in order to establish the functional significance of adenosine in chemoreception at the carotid body in control and chronically hypoxic rats. To achieve this objective we investigated: 1) The release of adenosine from a rat carotid body in vitro preparation in response to moderate hypoxia and the specificity of this release. We also investigated the metabolic pathways of adenosine production and release in the organ in normoxia and hypoxia; 2) The modulation of adenosine/ATP release from rat carotid body chemoreceptor cells by nicotinic ACh receptors; 3) The effects of caffeine on peripheral control of breathing and the identity of the adenosine receptors involved in adenosine and caffeine effects on carotid body chemoreceptors; 4) The interactions between dopamine D2 receptors and adenosine A2B receptors that modulate the release of catecholamines (CA) from the rat carotid body; 5) The effect of chronic caffeine intake i.e. the continuous blockage of adenosine receptors thereby simulating a caffeine dependence, on the carotid body function in control and chronically hypoxic rats. The methodologies used in this work included: molecular biology techniques (e.g. immunocytochemistry and western-blot), biochemical techniques (e.g. neurotransmitter quantification by HPLC, bioluminescence and radioisotopic methods), electrophysiological techniques (e.g. action potential recordings) and ventilatory recordings using whole-body plethysmography. It was observed that: 1) CB chemoreceptor sensitivity to hypoxia could be related to its low threshold for the release of adenosine because moderate acute hypoxia (10% O2) increased adenosine concentrations released from the CB by 44% but was not a strong enough stimulus to evoke adenosine release from superior cervical ganglia and arterial tissue; 2) Acetylcholine (ACh) modulates the release of adenosine/5’-adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from CB in moderate hypoxia through the activation of nicotinic receptors with α4 and ß2 receptor subunits, suggesting that the excitatory role of ACh in chemosensory activity includes indirect activation of purinergic receptors by adenosine and ATP, which strongly supports the hypothesis that ATP/adenosine are important mediators in chemotransduction; 3) adenosine increases the release of CA from rat CB chemoreceptor cells via A2B receptors; 4) the inhibitory effects of caffeine on CB chemoreceptors are mediated by antagonism of postsynaptic A2A and presynaptic A2B adenosine receptors indicating that chemosensory activity elicited by hypoxia is controlled by adenosine; 5) The release of CA from rat CB chemoreceptor cells is modulated by adenosine through an antagonistic interaction between A2B and D2 receptors, for the first time herein described; 6) chronic caffeine treatment did not significantly alter the basal function of CB in normoxic rats assessed as the dynamics of their neurotransmitters, dopamine, ATP and adenosine, and the CSN chemosensory activity. In contrast, the responses to hypoxia in these animals were facilitated by chronic caffeine intake because it increased the ventilatory response, slightly increased CSN chemosensory activity and increased dopamine (DA) and ATP release; 7) In comparison with normoxic rats, chronically hypoxic rats exhibited an increase in several parameters: ventilatory hypoxic response; basal and hypoxic CSN activity; tyrosine hydroxylase expression, CA content, synthesis and release; basal and hypoxic adenosine release; and in contrast a normal basal release and diminished hypoxia-induced ATP release; 8) Finally, in contrast to chronically hypoxic rats, chronic caffeine treatment did not alter the basal CSN chemosensory activity. Nevertheless, the responses to mild and intense hypoxia, and hypercapnia, were diminished. This inhibitory effect of chronic caffeine in CB output is compensated by central mechanisms, as the minute ventilation parameter in basal conditions and in response to acute hypoxic challenges remained unaltered in rats exposed to chronic hypoxia. We can conclude that adenosine both in acute and chronically hypoxic conditions have an excitatory role in the CB chemosensory activity, acting directly on adenosine A2A receptors present postsynaptically in CSN, and acting presynaptically via A2B receptors controlling the release of dopamine in chemoreceptor cells. We suggest that A2B -D2 adenosine / dopamine interactions at the CB could explain the increase in CA metabolism caused by chronic ingestion of caffeine during chronic hypoxia. It was also concluded that adenosine facilitates CB sensitisation to chronic hypoxia although this effect is further compensated at the central nervous system.-------- RESUMO: Os corpos carotídeos (CB) são pequenos orgãos emparelhados localizados na bifurcação da artéria carótida comum. Estes órgãos são sensíveis a variações na PaO2, PaCO2, pH e temperatura sendo responsáveis pela hiperventilação que ocorre em resposta à hipóxia, contribuindo também para a hiperventilação que acompanha a acidose metabólica e respiratória. As células quimiorreceptoras (tipo I ou glómicas) do corpo carotídeo respondem às variações de gases arteriais libertando neurotransmissores que activam as terminações sensitivas do nervo do seio carotídeo (CSN) conduzindo a informação ao centro respiratório central. Está ainda por esclarecer qual o neurotransmissor (ou os neurotransmissores) responsável pela sinalização hipóxica no corpo carotídeo. A adenosina é um neurotransmissor excitatório no CB que aumenta a actividade eléctrica do CSN induzindo a hiperventilação através da activação de receptores A2. A importância destes efeitos da adenosina na quimiorrecepção, descritos em ratos e gatos, foi reforçada por resultados obtidos em voluntários saudáveis onde a infusão intravenosa de adenosina em induz hiperventilação e dispneia, efeito atribuído a uma activação do CB uma vez que a adenosina não atravessa a barreira hemato-encefálica e o efeito é quanto maior quanto mais perto do CB for a administração de adenosina. O presente trabalho foi realizado com o objectivo de esclarecer qual o significado funcional da adenosina na quimiorrecepção no CB em animais controlo e em animais submetidos a hipoxia crónica mantida. Para alcançar este objectivo investigou-se: 1) o efeito da hipóxia moderada sobre a libertação de adenosina numa preparação in vitro de CB e a especificidade desta mesma libertação comparativamente com outros tecidos não quimiossensitivos, assim como as vias metabólicas de produção e libertação de adenosina no CB em normoxia e hipóxia; 2) a modulação da libertação de adenosina/ATP das células quimiorreceptoras do CB por receptores nicotínicos de ACh; 3) os efeitos da cafeína no controlo periférico da ventilação e a identidade dos receptores de adenosina envolvidos nos efeitos da adenosina e da cafeína nos quimiorreceptores do CB; 4) as interacções entre os receptores D2 de dopamina e os receptores A2B de adenosina que modulam a libertação de catecolaminas (CA) no CB de rato e; 5) o efeito da ingestão crónica de cafeína, isto é, o contínuo bloqueio e dos receptores de adenosina, simulando assim o consumo crónico da cafeína, tal como ocorre na população humana mundial e principalmente no ocidente, na função do corpo carotídeo em ratos controlo e em ratos submetidos a hipoxia crónica. Os métodos utilizados neste trabalho incluíram: técnicas de biologia molecular como imunocitoquímica e western-blot; técnicas bioquímicas, tais como a quantificação de neurotransmissores por HPLC, bioluminescência e métodos radioisotópicos; técnicas electrofisiológicas como o registro de potenciais eléctricos do nervo do seio carotídeo in vitro; e registros ventilatórios in vivo em animais não anestesiados e em livre movimento (pletismografia). Observou-se que: 1) a especificidade dos quimiorreceptores do CB como sensores de O2 está correlacionada com o baixo limiar de libertação de adenosina em resposta à hipóxia dado que a libertação de adenosina do CB aumenta 44% em resposta a uma hipóxia moderada (10% O2), que no entanto não é um estímulo suficientemente intenso para evocar a libertação de adenosina do gânglio cervical superior ou do tecido arterial. Observou-se também que aproximadamente 40% da adenosina libertada pelo CB provém do catabolismo extracelular do ATP quer em normóxia quer em hipóxia moderada, sendo que PO2 reduzidas induzem a libertação de adenosina via activação do sistema de transporte equilibrativo ENT1. 2) a ACh modula a libertação de adenosina /ATP do CB em resposta à hipoxia moderada sugerindo que o papel excitatório da ACh na actividade quimiossensora inclui a activação indirecta de receptores purinérgicos pela adenosina e ATP, indicando que a adenosina e o ATP poderiam actuar como mediadores importantes no processo de quimiotransducção uma vez que: a) a activação dos receptores nicotínicos de ACh no CB em normóxia estimula a libertação de adenosina (max 36%) provindo aparentemente da degradação extracelular do ATP. b) a caracterização farmacológica dos receptores nicotínicos de ACh envolvidos na estimulação da libertação de adenosina do CB revelou que os receptores nicotínicos de ACh envolvidos são constituídos por subunidades α4ß2. 3) a adenosina modula a libertação de catecolaminas das células quimiorreceptoras do CB através de receptores de adenosina A2B dado que: a)a cafeína, um antagonista não selectivo dos receptores de adenosina, inibiu a libertação de CA quer em normóxia quer em resposta a estímulos de baixa intensidade sendo ineficaz na libertação induzida por estímulos de intensidade superior; b) o DPCPX e do MRS1754 mimetizaram os efeitos da cafeína no CB sendo o SCH58621 incapaz de induzir a libertação de CA indicando que os efeitos da cafeína seriam mediados por receptores A2B de adenosina cuja presença nas células quimiorreceptoras do CB demonstramos por imunocitoquímica. 4) a aplicação aguda de cafeína inibiu em 52% a actividade quimiossensora do CSN induzida pela hipóxia sendo este efeito mediado respectivamente por receptores de adenosina A2A pós-sinápticos e A2B pré-sinápticos indicando que a actividade quimiossensora induzida pela hipóxia é controlada pela adenosina. 5) existe uma interacção entre os receptores A2B e D2 que controla a libertação de CA do corpo carotídeo de rato uma vez que: a) os antagonistas dos receptores D2, domperidona e haloperidol, aumentaram a libertação basal e evocada de CA das células quimiorreceptoras confirmando a presença de autorreceptores D2 no CB de rato que controlam a libertação de CA através de um mecanismo de feed-back negativo. b) o sulpiride, um antagonista dos receptores D2, aumentou a libertação de CA das células quimiorreceptoras revertendo o efeito inibitório da cafeína sobre esta mesma libertação; c) a propilnorapomorfina, um agonista D2 inibiu a libertação basal e evocada de CA sendo este efeito revertido pela NECA, um agonista dos receptores A2B. O facto de a NECA potenciar o efeito do haloperidol na libertação de CA sugere que a interacção entre os receptores D2 e A2B poderia também ocorrer ao nível de segundos mensageiros, como o cAMP. 6) a ingestão crónica de cafeína em ratos controlo (normóxicos) não alterou significativamente a função basal do CB medida como a dinâmica dos seus neurotransmissores, dopamina, ATP e adenosina e como actividade quimiossensora do CSN. Contrariamente aos efeitos basais, a ingestão crónica de cafeína facilitou a resposta à hipóxia, dado que aumentou o efeito no volume minuto respiratórioapresentando-se também uma clara tendência para aumentar a actividade quimiossensora do CSN e aumentar a libertação de ATP e dopamina.7) após um período de 15 dias de hipóxia crónica era evidente o fenómeno de aclimatização dado que as respostas ventilatórias à hipóxia se encontram aumentadas, assim como a actividade quimiossensora do CSN basal e induzida pela hipóxia. As alterações observadas no metabolismo da dopamina, assim como na libertação basal de dopamina e de adenosina poderiam contribuir para a aclimatização durante a hipoxia crónica. A libertação aumentada de adenosina em resposta à hipóxia aguda em ratos hipóxicos crónicos sugere um papel da adenosina na manutenção/aumento das respostas ventilatórias à hipóxia aguda durante a hipóxia crónica. Observou-se também que a libertação de ATP induzida pela hipóxia aguda se encontra diminuída em hipóxia crónica, contudo a ingestão crónica de cafeína reverteu este efeito para valores similares aos valores controlo, sugerindo que a adenosina possa modular a libertação de ATP em hipóxia crónica. 8) a ingestão crónica de cafeína em ratos hipóxicos crónicos induziu o aumento do metabolismo de CA no CB, medido como expressão de tirosina hidroxilase, conteúdo, síntese e libertação de CA. 9) a ingestão crónica de cafeína não provocou quaisquer alterações na actividade quimiossensora do CSN em ratos hipóxicos crónicos no entanto, as respostas do CSN à hipóxia aguda intensa e moderada e à hipercapnia encontram-se diminuídas. Este efeito inibitório que provém da ingestão crónica de cafeína parece ser compensado ao nível dos quimiorreceptores centrais dado que os parâmetros ventilatórios em condições basais e em resposta à hipoxia aguda não se encontram modificados em ratos expostos durante 15 dias a uma atmosfera hipóxica. Resumindo podemos assim concluir que a adenosina quer em situações de hipoxia aguda quer em condições de hipoxia crónica tem um papel excitatório na actividade quimiossensora do CB actuando directamente nos receptores A2A presentes pós-sinapticamente no CSN, assim como facilitando a libertação de dopamina pré-sinapticamente via receptores A2B presentes nas células quimiorreceptoras. A interacção negativa entre os receptores A2B e D2 observadas nas células quimiorreceptoras do CB poderia explicar o aumento do metabolismo de CA observado após a ingestão crónica de cafeína em animais hipóxicos. Conclui-se ainda que durante a aclimatização à hipóxia a acção inibitória da cafeína, em termos de resposta ventilatória, mediada pelos quimiorreceptores periféricos é compensada pelos efeitos excitatórios desta xantina ao nível do quimiorreceptores centrais.------- RESUMEN Los cuerpos carotídeos (CB) son órganos emparejados que están localizados en la bifurcación de la arteria carótida común. Estos órganos son sensibles a variaciones en la PaO2, en la PaCO2, pH y temperatura siendo responsables de la hiperventilación que ocurre en respuesta a la hipoxia, contribuyendo también a la hiperventilación que acompaña a la acidosis metabólica y respiratoria. Las células quimiorreceptoras (tipo I o glómicas) del cuerpo carotídeo responden a las variaciones de gases arteriales liberando neurotransmissores que activan las terminaciones sensitivas del nervio del seno carotídeo (CSN) llevando la información al centro respiratorio central. Todavía esta por clarificar cual el neurotransmisor (o neurotransmisores) responsable por la señalización hipóxica en el CB. La adenosina es un neurotransmisor excitatório en el CB ya que aumenta la actividad del CSN e induce la hiperventilación a través de la activación de receptores de adenosina del subtipo A2. La importancia de estos efectos de la adenosina en la quimiorrecepción, descritos en ratas y gatos, ha sido fuertemente reforzada por resultados obtenidos en voluntarios sanos en los que la infusión intravenosa de adenosina induce hiperventilación y dispnea, efectos estés que han sido atribuidos a una activación del CB ya que la adenosina no cruza la barrera hemato-encefalica y el efecto es tanto más grande cuanto más cercana del CB es la administración. Este trabajo ha sido realizado con el objetivo de investigar cual el significado funcional de la adenosina en la quimiorrecepción en el CB en animales controlo y en animales sometidos a hipoxia crónica sostenida. Para alcanzar este objetivo se ha estudiado: 1) el efecto de la hipoxia moderada en la liberación de adenosina en una preparación in vitro de CB y la especificidad de esta liberación en comparación con otros tejidos no-quimiosensitivos, así como las vías metabólicas de producción y liberación de adenosina del órgano en normoxia y hipoxia; 2) la modulación de la liberación de adenosina/ATP de las células quimiorreceptoras del CB por receptores nicotínicos de ACh; 3) los efectos de la cafeína en el controlo periférico de la ventilación y la identidad de los receptores de adenosina involucrados en los efectos de la adenosina y cafeína en los quimiorreceptores del CB; 4) las interacciones entre los receptores D2 de dopamina y los receptores A2B de adenosina que modulan la liberación de catecolaminas (CA) en el CB de rata y; 5) el efecto de la ingestión crónica de cafeína, es decir, el bloqueo sostenido de los receptores de adenosina, simulando la dependencia de cafeína observada en la populación mundial del occidente, en la función del CB en ratas controlo y sometidas a hipoxia crónica sostenida. Los métodos utilizados en este trabajo incluirán: técnicas de biología molecular como imunocitoquímica y western-blot; técnicas bioquímicas, tales como la cuantificación de neurotransmissores por HPLC, bioluminescencia y métodos radioisotópicos; técnicas electrofisiológicas como el registro de potenciales eléctricos del nervio do seno carotídeo in vitro; y registros ventilatórios in vivo en animales no anestesiados y en libre movimiento (pletismografia). Se observó que: 1) la sensibilidad de los quimiorreceptores de CB esta correlacionada con un bajo umbral de liberación de adenosina en respuesta a la hipoxia ya que en respuesta a una hipoxia moderada (10% O2) la liberación de adenosina en el CB aumenta un 44%, sin embargo esta PaO2 no es un estimulo suficientemente fuerte para inducir la liberación de adenosina del ganglio cervical superior o del tejido arterial; se observó también que aproximadamente 40% de la adenosina liberada del CB proviene del catabolismo extracelular del ATP en normoxia y en hipoxia moderada, y que bajas PO2 inducen la liberación de adenosina vía activación del sistema de transporte equilibrativo ENT1. 2) la ACh modula la liberación de adenosina /ATP del CB en respuesta a la hipóxia moderada lo que sugiere que el papel excitatório de la ACh en la actividad quimiosensora incluye la activación indirecta de receptores purinérgicos por la adenosina y el ATP, indicando que la adenosina y el ATP pueden actuar como mediadores importantes en el proceso de quimiotransducción ya que: a) la activación de los receptores nicotínicos de ACh en el CB en normoxia estimula la liberación de adenosina (max 36%) que aparentemente proviene de la degradación extracelular del ATP. Se observó también que este aumento de adenosina en el CB en hipoxia ha sido antagonizado parcialmente por antagonistas de estos mismos receptores; b) la caracterización farmacológica de los receptores nicotínicos de ACh involucrados en la estimulación de la liberación de adenosina del CB ha revelado que los receptores nicotínicos de ACh involucrados son constituidos por sub-unidades α4ß2. 3) la adenosina modula la liberación de CA de las células quimiorreceptoras del CB a través de receptores de adenosina A2B ya que: a) la cafeína, un antagonista no selectivo de los receptores de adenosina, ha inhibido la liberación de CA en normoxia y en respuesta a estímulos de baja intensidad siendo ineficaz en la liberación inducida por estímulos de intensidad superior; b) el DPCPX y el MRS1754 ha mimetizado los efectos de la cafeína en el CB y el SCH58621 ha sido incapaz de inducir la liberación de CA lo que sugiere que los efectos de la cafeína son mediados por receptores A2B de adenosina que están localizados pré-sinapticamente en las células quimiorreceptoras del CB. 4) la aplicación aguda de cafeína ha inhibido en 52% la actividad quimiosensora del CSN inducida por la hipoxia siendo este efecto mediado respectivamente por receptores de adenosina A2A pós-sinápticos y A2B pré-sinápticos lo que indica que la actividad quimiosensora inducida por la hipoxia es controlada por la adenosina. 5) existe una interacción entre los receptores A2B y D2 que controla la liberación de CA del CB de rata ya que: a) el sulpiride, un antagonista de los receptores D2, ha aumentado la liberación de CA de las células quimiorreceptoras revertiendo el efecto inhibitorio de la cafeína sobre esta misma liberación; b) los antagonistas de los receptores D2, domperidona y haloperidol, han aumentado la liberación basal e evocada de CA de las células quimiorreceptoras confirmando la presencia de autorreceptores D2 en el CB de rata que controlan la liberación de CA a través de un mecanismo de feed-back negativo; c) la propilnorapomorfina, un agonista D2, ha inhibido la liberación basal e evocada de CA sendo este efecto revertido por la NECA, un agonista de los receptores A2B. Ya que la NECA potencia el efecto del haloperidol en la liberación de CA la interacción entre los D2 y A2B puede también ocurrir al nivel de segundos mensajeros, como el cAMP. 6) la ingestión crónica de cafeína en ratas controlo (normóxicas) no ha cambiado significativamente la función basal del CB medida como la dinámica de sus neurotransmisores, dopamina, ATP y adenosina y como actividad quimiosensora del CSN. Al revés de lo que pasa con los efectos básales, la ingestión crónica de cafeína facilitó la respuesta a la hipóxia, ya que ha aumentado la respuesta ventilatória medida como volumen minuto presentando también una clara tendencia para aumentar la actividad quimiosensora del CSN y aumentar la liberación de ATP y dopamina. 7. Después de un período de 15 días de hipoxia crónica se puede observar el fenómeno de climatización ya que las respuestas ventilatórias a la hipoxia están aumentadas, así como la actividad quimiosensora del CSN basal e inducida por la hipoxia. Los cambios observados en el metabolismo de la dopamina, así como en la liberación basal de dopamina y de adenosina podrían contribuir para la climatización en hipoxia crónica. El aumento en la liberación de adenosina en respuesta a la hipoxia aguda en ratas sometidas a hipoxia crónica sugiere un papel para la adenosina en el mantenimiento/aumento de las respuestas ventilatórias a la hipoxia aguda en hipoxia crónica sostenida. Se ha observado también que la liberación de ATP inducida por la hipoxia aguda está disminuida en hipoxia crónica y que la ingestión crónica de cafeína reverte este efecto para valores similares a los valores controlo, sugiriendo que la adenosina podría modular la liberación de ATP en hipoxia crónica. 8. la ingestión crónica de cafeína ha inducido el aumento del metabolismo de CA en el CB en ratas hipóxicas crónicas, medido como expresión de la tirosina hidroxilase, contenido, síntesis y liberación de CA. 9. la ingestión crónica de cafeína no ha inducido cambios en la actividad quimiosensora del CSN en ratas hipóxicas crónicas sin embargo las respuestas do CSN a una hipoxia intensa y moderada y a la hipercapnia están disminuidas. Este efecto inhibitorio que es debido a la ingestión crónica de cafeína es compensado al nivel de los quimiorreceptores centrales ya que los parámetros ventilatórios en condiciones básales y en respuesta a la hipoxia aguda no están modificados en ratas expuestas durante 15 días a una atmósfera hipóxica. Resumiendo se puede concluir que la adenosina en situaciones de hipoxia aguda así como en hipoxia crónica tiene un papel excitatório en la actividad quimiosensora del CB actuando directamente en los receptores A2A localizados pós-sinapticamente en el CSN, así como controlando la liberación de dopamina pré-sinaptica vía receptores A2B localizados en las células quimiorreceptoras. Las interacciones entre los receptores A2B y D2 observadas en las células quimiorreceptoras del CB podrían explicar el aumento del metabolismo de CA observado después de la ingestión crónica de cafeína en animales hipóxicos. Por fin, pero no menos importante se puede concluir que durante la climatización a la hipoxia la acción inhibitoria de la cafeína, medida como respuesta ventilatória, mediada por los quimiorreceptores periféricos es compensada por los efectos excitatórios de esta xantina al nivel de los quimiorreceptores centrales.

Development of Secondary Resistance to Fluconazole in Cryptococcus neoformans Isolated from a Patient with AIDS

Cryptococcus neoformans is the fifth most common opportunistic agent of infection in patients with AIDS in the USA, exceeded only by Candida species, Pneumocystis carinii, cytomegalovirus and Mycobacterium avium1, 2, 6, 10, 11. In Brazil is the sixth, exceeded by Candida species, P. carinii, Mycobacterium species, Toxoplasma gondii, and herpes simplex virus (AIDS, Boletim Epidemiológico, set/nov 96, Ministério da Saúde, Brasil). During 30 years, the treatment of C. neoformans meningitis was based on the use of amphotericin B with or without flucytosine13. Nowadays, with the immunodepression caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and the availability of new antifungal drugs as the triazoles, the concept related to cure and relapses of cryptococcosis has been altered7, 20. Patients are treated with amphotericin B with or without flucytosine as initial therapy, but maintenance therapy is always necessary in AIDS patients with C. neoformans infections

Effects of microcurrents and physical exercise on the abdominal fat: a randomized controlled trial in patients with coronary artery disease

Objectives: Coronary artery disease are associated with decreased levels of physical activity, contributing to increases in abdominal fat and consequently the metabolic risk. The use of microcurrents is an innovative and effective method to increase lipolytic rate of abdominal adipocytes. This study aims to investigate the effects of microcurrents with a homebased exercise program on total, subcutaneous and visceral abdominal adipose tissue in subjects with coronary artery disease. Methods: This controlled trial included 44 subjects with myocardial infarction, randomly divided into Intervention Group 1 (IG1; n = 16), Intervention Group 2 (IG2; n = 12) and Control Group (CG; n = 16). IG1 performed a specific exercise program at home during 8 weeks, and IG2 additionally used microcurrents on the abdominal region before the exercise program. All groups were subjected to health education sessions. Computed Tomography was used to evaluate abdominal, subcutaneous and visceral fat, accelerometers to measure habitual physical activity and the semiquantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire for dietary intake. Results: After 8 weeks, IG2 showed a significantly decreased in subcutaneous fat (p ≤ 0.05) when compared to CG. Concerning visceral fat, both intervention groups showed a significant decrease in comparison to the CG (p ≤ 0.05). No significant changes were found between groups on dietary intake and habitual physical activity, except for sedentary activity that decreased significantly in IG2 in comparison with CG (p ≤ 0.05). Conclusions: This specific exercise program showed improvements in visceral fat in individuals with coronary artery disease. Microcurrent therapy associated with a home-based exercise program suggested a decreased in subcutaneous abdominal fat.

Study of forbidden transitions in atomic systems

A Thesis submitted for the co-tutelle degree of Doctor in Physics at Universidade Nova de Lisboa and Université Pierre et Marie Curie

Postaerobic Exercise Blood Pressure Reduction in Very Old Persons With Hypertension.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: A single bout of aerobic exercise acutely decreases blood pressure, even in older adults with hypertension. Nonetheless, blood pressure responses to aerobic exercise in very old adults with hypertension have not yet been documented. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the effect of a single session of aerobic exercise on postexercise blood pressure in very old adults with hypertension. METHODS: Eighteen older adults with essential hypertension were randomized into exercise (N = 9, age: 83.4 ± 3.2 years old) or control (N = 9, age: 82.7 ± 2.5 years old) groups. The exercise group performed a session of aerobic exercise constituting 2 periods of 10 minutes of walking at an intensity of 40% to 60% of the heart rate reserve. The control group rested for the same period of time. Anthropometric variables and medication status were evaluated at baseline. Heart rate and systolic and diastolic blood pressures were measured at baseline, after exercise, and at 20 and 40 minutes postexercise. RESULTS: Systolic blood pressure showed a significant interaction for group × time (F3,24 = 6.698; P = .002; ηp = 0.153). In the exercise group, the systolic blood pressure at 20 (127.3 ± 20.9 mm Hg) and 40 minutes (123.7 ± 21.0 mm Hg) postexercise was significantly lower in comparison with baseline (135.6 ± 20.6 mm Hg). Diastolic blood pressure did not change. Heart rate was significantly higher after the exercise session. In the control group, no significant differences were observed. CONCLUSIONS: A single session of aerobic exercise acutely reduces blood pressure in very old adults with hypertension and may be considered an important nonpharmacological strategy to control hypertension in this age group.