Factors Resulting In Micron Indentation Hardness Descending In Indentation Tests

Some factors that affect the experimental results in nanoindentation tests such as the contact depth, contact area, load and loading duration are analyzed in this article. Combining with the results of finite element numerical simulation, we find that the creep property of the tested material is one of the important factors causing the micron indentation hardness descending with the increase of indentation depth. The analysis of experimental results with different indentation depths demonstrates that the hardness decrease can be bated if the continuous stiffness measurement technique is not adopted; this indicates that the test method itself may also be one of the factors causing the hardness being descended.

Aspects of ecology of Owena reservoirs: implication on fish production

The article gives physical description of Owana reservoir, Nigeria. The reservoir was chemically and thermally stratified partial mixing of the water was observed during the rains. The concentration of major ions in the water showed distinct peculiarities. The captions (Na super(+), K super(+)Ca super(H),Ca super(Z), Mg super(++)) SO sub(4) super(2-) were relatively low. The water had high dissolved oxygen, it was acidic and also had low values of alkalinity, conductivity and total dissolved solids. About 61 plankton taxa belonging to 21 species were identified. The reservoir supports a commercial fishery of about fifteen fishermen with about fifteen species of fish caught daily with the aid of traps set and cast nets. Effective management of the lake will enhance fish production

A Mechanical Model For The Quantification Of The Effect Of Laser Quenching On Ctod In Steels

The technology of laser quenching is widely used to improve the surface properties of steels in surface engineering. Generally, laser quenching of steels can lead to two important results. One is the generation of residual stress in the surface layer. In general, the residual stress varies from the surface to the interior along the quenched track depth direction, and the residual stress variation is termed as residual stress gradient effect in this work. The other is the change of mechanical properties of the surface layer, such as the increases of the micro-hardness, resulting from the changes of the microstructure of the surface layer. In this work, a mechanical model of a laser-quenched specimen with a crack in the middle of the quenched layer is developed to quantify the effect of residual stress gradient and the average micro-hardness over the crack length on crack tip opening displacement (CTOD). It is assumed that the crack in the middle of the quenched layer is created after laser quenching, and the crack can be a pre-crack or a defect due to some reasons, such as a void, cavity or a micro-crack. Based on the elastic-plastic fracture mechanics theory and using the relationship between the micro-hardness and yield strength, a concise analytical solution, which can be used to quantify the effect of residual stress gradient and the average micro-hardness over the crack length resulting from laser quenching on CTOD, is obtained. The concise analytical solution obtained in this work, cannot only be used as a means to predict the crack driving force in terms of the CTOD, but also serve as a baseline for further experimental investigation of the effect after laser-quenching treatment on fracture toughness in terms of the critical CTOD of a specimen, accounting for the laser-quenching effect. A numerical example presented in this work shows that the CTOD of the quenched can be significantly decreased in comparison with that of the unquenched. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Electron acceleration by an intense short-pulse laser in underdense plasma

Electron acceleration from the interaction of an intense short-pulse laser with low density plasma is considered. The relation between direct electron acceleration within the laser pulse and that in the wake is investigated analytically. The magnitude and location of the ponderomotive-force-caused charge separation field with respect to that of the pulse determine the relative effectiveness of the two acceleration mechanisms. It is shown that there is an optimum condition for acceleration in the wake. Electron acceleration within the pulse dominates as the pulse becomes sufficiently short, and the latter directly drives and even traps the electrons. The latter can reach ultrahigh energies and can be extracted by impinging the pulse on a solid target. (C) 2003 American Institute of Physics.

Ion cascade acceleration from the interaction of a relativistic femtosecond laser pulse with a narrow thin target

Particle-in-cell simulations are performed to study the acceleration of ions due to the interaction of a relativistic femtosecond laser pulse with a narrow thin target. The numerical results show that ions can be accelerated in a cascade by two electrostatic fields if the width of the target is smaller than the laser beam waist. The first field is formed in front of the target by the central part of the laser beam, which pushes the electron layer inward. The major part of the abaxial laser energy propagates along the edges to the rear side of the target and pulls out some hot electrons from the edges of the target, which form another electrostatic field at the rear side of the target. The ions from the front surface are accelerated stepwise by these two electrostatic fields to high energies at the rear side of the target. The simulations show that the largest ion energy gain for a narrow target is about four times higher than in the case of a wide target. (c) 2006 American Institute of Physics.

Fracture of materials undergoing solid-solid phase transformation

A large number of technologically important materials undergo solid-solid phase transformations. Examples range from ferroelectrics (transducers and memory devices), zirconia (Thermal Barrier Coatings) to nickel superalloys and (lithium) iron phosphate (Li-ion batteries). These transformations involve a change in the crystal structure either through diffusion of species or local rearrangement of atoms. This change of crystal structure leads to a macroscopic change of shape or volume or both and results in internal stresses during the transformation. In certain situations this stress field gives rise to cracks (tin, iron phosphate etc.) which continue to propagate as the transformation front traverses the material. In other materials the transformation modifies the stress field around cracks and effects crack growth behavior (zirconia, ferroelectrics). These observations serve as our motivation to study cracks in solids undergoing phase transformations. Understanding these effects will help in improving the mechanical reliability of the devices employing these materials.

In this thesis we present work on two problems concerning the interplay between cracks and phase transformations. First, we consider the directional growth of a set of parallel edge cracks due to a solid-solid transformation. We conclude from our analysis that phase transformations can lead to formation of parallel edge cracks when the transformation strain satisfies certain conditions and the resulting cracks grow all the way till their tips cross over the phase boundary. Moreover the cracks continue to grow as the phase boundary traverses into the interior of the body at a uniform spacing without any instabilities. There exists an optimal value for the spacing between the cracks. We ascertain these conclusion by performing numerical simulations using finite elements.

Second, we model the effect of the semiconducting nature and dopants on cracks in ferroelectric perovskite materials, particularly barium titanate. Traditional approaches to model fracture in these materials have treated them as insulators. In reality, they are wide bandgap semiconductors with oxygen vacancies and trace impurities acting as dopants. We incorporate the space charge arising due the semiconducting effect and dopant ionization in a phase field model for the ferroelectric. We derive the governing equations by invoking the dissipation inequality over a ferroelectric domain containing a crack. This approach also yields the driving force acting on the crack. Our phase field simulations of polarization domain evolution around a crack show the accumulation of electronic charge on the crack surface making it more permeable than was previously believed so, as seen in recent experiments. We also discuss the effect the space charge has on domain formation and the crack driving force.

Predicting the fisheries potentials of inland reservoirs and lakes: a case study of Kubanni Reservoir, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria

The depth, alkalinity, total dissolved solids and conductivity of Kubanni Reservoir were monitored biweekly between December 2003 and April 2004. The range values and their means were 0.8-4.64m, 42-67mg/l, 52-71mg/l and 104-142 mhos/cm; 2.8m, 42.6mg/l, 59.8mg/l and 119.6 mhos/cm respectively. Total Dissolved solids correlated significantly (P<0.05) with depth and conductivity while alkalinity correlated highly and significantly(P<0.05) with conductivity, total dissolved solids but negatively correlated with depth. The electrical conductivity was positively and highly correlated with depth while Morpho-Edaphic Index (MEI) which increased with depth decrease correlated positively with conductivity. Based on the average value of the MEI the potential fish catch of the reservoir was estimated to be 38kg/ha. This estimate was compared with other values obtained from other African reservoirs/lakes and management considerations under "private liability company" are proffered

Short-pulse laser absorption via J x B heating in ultrahigh intensity laser plasma interaction

An analytical fluid model for JxB heating during the normal incidence by a short ultraintense linearly polarized laser on a solid-density plasma is proposed. The steepening of an originally smooth electron density profile as the electrons are pushed inward by the laser is included self-consistently. It is shown that the JxB heating includes two distinct coupling processes depending on the initial laser and plasma conditions: for a moderate intensity (a <= 1), the ponderomotive force of the laser light can drive a large plasma wave at the point n(e)=4 gamma(0)n(c) resonantly. When this plasma wave is damped, the energy is transferred to the plasma. At higher intensity, the electron density is steepened to a high level by the time-independent ponderomotive force, n(e)> 4 gamma(0)n(c), so that no 2 omega resonance will occur, but the longitudinal component of the oscillating ponderomotive field can lead to an absorption mechanism similar to "vacuum heating." (c) 2006 American Institute of Physics.

Digested sludge: delineation and modeling for ocean disposal

Experimental work was performed to delineate the system of digested sludge particles and associated trace metals and also to measure the interactions of sludge with seawater. Particle-size and particle number distributions were measured with a Coulter Counter. Number counts in excess of 10¹² particles per liter were found in both the City of Los Angeles Hyperion mesophilic digested sludge and the Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts (LACSD) digested primary sludge. More than 90 percent of the particles had diameters less than 10 microns.

Total and dissolved trace metals (Ag, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn) were measured in LACSD sludge. Manganese was the only metal whose dissolved fraction exceeded one percent of the total metal. Sedimentation experiments for several dilutions of LACSD sludge in seawater showed that the sedimentation velocities of the sludge particles decreased as the dilution factor increased. A tenfold increase in dilution shifted the sedimentation velocity distribution by an order of magnitude. Chromium, Cu, Fe, Ni, Pb, and Zn were also followed during sedimentation. To a first approximation these metals behaved like the particles.

Solids and selected trace metals (Cr, Cu, Fe, Ni, Pb, and Zn) were monitored in oxic mixtures of both Hyperion and LACSD sludges for periods of 10 to 28 days. Less than 10 percent of the filterable solids dissolved or were oxidized. Only Ni was mobilized away from the particles. The majority of the mobilization was complete in less than one day.

The experimental data of this work were combined with oceanographic, biological, and geochemical information to propose and model the discharge of digested sludge to the San Pedro and Santa Monica Basins. A hydraulic computer simulation for a round buoyant jet in a density stratified medium showed that discharges of sludge effluent mixture at depths of 730 m would rise no more than 120 m. Initial jet mixing provided dilution estimates of 450 to 2600. Sedimentation analyses indicated that the solids would reach the sediments within 10 km of the point discharge.

Mass balances on the oxidizable chemical constituents in sludge indicated that the nearly anoxic waters of the basins would become wholly anoxic as a result of proposed discharges. From chemical-equilibrium computer modeling of the sludge digester and dilutions of sludge in anoxic seawater, it was predicted that the chemistry of all trace metals except Cr and Mn will be controlled by the precipitation of metal sulfide solids. This metal speciation held for dilutions up to 3000.

The net environmental impacts of this scheme should be salutary. The trace metals in the sludge should be immobilized in the anaerobic bottom sediments of the basins. Apparently no lifeforms higher than bacteria are there to be disrupted. The proposed deep-water discharges would remove the need for potentially expensive and energy-intensive land disposal alternatives and would end the discharge to the highly productive water near the ocean surface.

Preparo e administração de medicamentos por sondas em pacientes que recebem nutrição enteral

O objeto de estudo foi o preparo e a administração de medicamentos por cateter pela enfermagem em pacientes que recebem nutrição enteral. O objetivo geral foi investigar o padrão de preparo e administração dos medicamentos por cateter em pacientes que recebem nutrição enteral concomitante. Os objetivos específicos foram apresentar o perfil dos medicamentos preparados e administrados de acordo com a possibilidade de serem administrados por cateter enteral e avaliar o tipo e a freqüência de erros que ocorrem no preparo e administração de medicamentos por cateter. Tratou-se de uma pesquisa com desenho transversal de natureza observacional, sem modelo de intervenção. Foi desenvolvida em um hospital do Rio de Janeiro onde foram observados técnicos de enfermagem preparando e administrando medicamentos por cateter na Unidade de Terapia Intensiva. Foram observadas 350 doses de medicamentos sendo preparados e administrados. Os grupos de medicamentos prevalentes foram os que agem no Sistema Cardiovascular Renal com 164 doses (46,80%), seguido pelos que agem no Sistema Respiratório e Sangue com 12,85% e 12,56% respectivamente. Foram encontrados 19 medicamentos diferentes do primeiro grupo, dois no segundo e cinco no terceiro. As categorias de erro no preparo foram trituração, diluição e misturas. Encontrou-se uma taxa média de 67,71% no preparo de medicamentos. Comprimidos simples foram preparados errados em 72,54% das doses, e todos os comprimidos revestidos e de liberação prolongada foram triturados indevidamente entre sólidos a categoria de erro prevalente foi trituração com 45,47%, preparar misturando medicamentos foi um erro encontrado em quase 40% das doses de medicamentos sólidos. A trituração insuficiente ocorreu em 73,33% das doses de ácido fólico, do cloridrato de amiodarona (58,97%) e bromoprida (50,00%). A mistura com outros medicamentos ocorreu em 66,66% das doses de bromoprida, de besilato de anlodipina (53,33%), bamifilina (43,47%), ácido fólico (40,00%) e ácido acetilsalicílico (33,33%). Os erros na administração foram ausência de pausa e manejo indevido do cateter. A taxa média de erros na administração foi de 32,64%, distribuídas entre 17,14% para pausa e 48,14% para manejo do cateter. A ausência de lavagem do cateter antes foi o erro mais comum e o mais incomum foi não lavar o cateter após a administração. Os medicamentos mais envolvidos em erros na administração foram: cloridrato de amiodarona (n=39), captopril (n=33), cloridrato de hidralazina (n=7), levotiroxina sódica (n=7). Com relação à lavagem dos cateteres antes, ela não ocorreu em 330 doses de medicamentos. O preparo e administração inadequados de medicamentos podem levar à perdas na biodisponibilidade, diminuição do nível sérico e riscos de intoxicações para o paciente. Preparar e administrar medicamentos são procedimentos comuns, porém apresentou altas taxas de erros, o que talvez reflita pouco conhecimento desses profissionais sobre as boas práticas da terapia medicamentosa. Constata-se a necessidade de maior investimento de todos os profissionais envolvidos, médicos, enfermeiros e farmacêuticos nas questões que envolvam a segurança com medicamentos assim como repensar o processo de trabalho da enfermagem.

Space-charge-limited current in fast neutron irradiated silicon

DC and transient measurements of space-charge-limited currents through alloyed and symmetrical n^+ν n^+ structures made of nominally 75 kΩcm ν-type silicon are studied before and after the introduction of defects by 14 MeV neutron radiation. In the transient measurements, the current response to a large turn-on voltage step is analyzed. Right after the voltage step is applied, the current transient reaches a value which we shall call "initial current" value. At longer times, the transient current decays from the initial current value if traps are present.

Before the irradiation, the initial current density-voltage characteristics J(V) agree quantitatively with the theory of trap-free space-charge-limited current in solids. We obtain for the electron mobility a temperature dependence which indicates that scattering due to impurities is weak. This is expected for the high purity silicon used. The drift velocity-field relationships for electrons at room temperature and 77°K, derived from the initial current density-voltage characteristics, are shown to fit the relationships obtained with other methods by other workers. The transient current response for t > 0 remains practically constant at the initial value, thus indicating negligible trapping.

Measurement of the initial (trap-free) current density-voltage characteristics after the irradiation indicates that the drift velocity-field relationship of electrons in silicon is affected by the radiation only at low temperature in the low field range. The effect is not sufficiently pronounced to be readily analyzed and no formal description of it is offered. In the transient response after irradiation for t > 0, the current decays from its initial value, thus revealing the presence of traps. To study these traps, in addition to transient measurements, the DC current characteristics were measured and shown to follow the theory of trap-dominated space-charge-limited current in solids. This theory was applied to a model consisting of two discrete levels in the forbidden band gap. Calculations and experiments agreed and the capture cross-sections of the trapping levels were obtained. This is the first experimental case known to us through which the flow of space-charge-limited current is so simply representable.

These results demonstrate the sensitivity of space-charge-limited current flow as a tool to detect traps and changes in the drift velocity-field relationship of carriers caused by radiation. They also establish that devices based on the mode of space-charge-limited current flow will be affected considerably by any type of radiation capable of introducing traps. This point has generally been overlooked so far, but is obviously quite significant.

Avaliação das propriedades de barreira a gases de membranas obtidas a partir de dispersões aquosas à base de poliuretanos e argila

Materiais nanoestruturados têm recebido destaque na comunidade científica, destacando-se, dentre eles, os nanocompósitos à base de polímeros e argila. Quando esses materiais são obtidos no estado líquido, ressalta-se também o uso de água em substituição a solventes orgânicos, devido a questões ambientais. Neste trabalho foram sintetizadas dispersões aquosas à base de poliuretanos (WPUs) e argila hidrofílica do tipo montimorilonita (MMT) de natureza sódica, com o objetivo de avaliar as propriedades de barreira a gases conferidas pela presença de argila e pela variação nas proporções entre os segmentos flexíveis poli(glicol propilênico) (PPG) e o copolímero em bloco à base de poli(glicol etilênico) e poli(glicol propilênico) (EG-b-PG). Os monômeros empregados na síntese foram: poli(glicol propilênico) (PPG); copolímero em bloco à base de poli(glicol etilênico) e poli(glicol propilênico) (EG-b-PG), com teor de 7% de EG; ácido dimetilolpropiônico (DMPA), diisocianato de isoforona (IPDI) e etilenodiamina (EDA), como extensor de cadeia. Foram sintetizadas dispersões aquosas com e sem a presença de argila, fixando-se a razão entre o número de equivalentes-grama de grupos diisocianato e hidroxila (razão NCO/OH) em 1,5. Nas formulações foi variado também o teor de argila em relação à massa de prepolímero em 0,5% e 1%. Foi adicionada uma etapa de agitação adicional com dispersor Turrax em algumas formulações. A argila foi previamente deslaminada em água deionizada e incorporada à formulação na etapa da dispersão do prepolímero. As dispersões foram avaliadas, quanto ao teor de sólidos totais, tamanho médio de partícula e viscosidade aparente. Os filmes vazados a partir das dispersões foram caracterizados por espectrometria na região do infravermelho (FTIR) e permeabilidade ao CO2. A resistência térmica dos filmes foi determinada por termogravimetria (TG). Foram observadas modificações nas propriedades dos filmes obtidos com a inserção da argila e com a variação no teor de segmentos à base de poli(glicol etilênico). A inserção da argila promoveu uma melhoria na resistência térmica das membranas bem como uma redução na permeabilidade das mesmas. Foi observado um aumento na permeabilidade das membranas obtidas a partir das formulações com maior percentual de copolímero (EG-b-PG), com e sem argila.

Estudo da influência do teor de segmentos hidrofílicos na síntese de poliuretanos dispersos em água

Considerações ambientais têm aumentado a pesquisa e o desenvolvimento de sistemas poliméricos aquosos para diversos tipos de aplicações, principalmente como revestimentos. Nesta dissertação, foram sintetizadas formulações não-poluentes à base de poliuretanos dispersos em água (PUDs), com 40% de teor de sólidos, na ausência de solventes orgânicos. Os monômeros empregados foram copolímeros em bloco à base de poli(glicol etilênico) e poli(glicol propilênico) (EG-b-PG), com teor de 25% de segmento hidrofílico EG, poli (glicol propilênico) (PPG), ácido dimetilolpropiônico (DMPA), diisocianato de isoforona (IPDI) e hidrazina (HYD), como extensor de cadeia. Foram variadas as razões entre o número de equivalente-grama de grupamentos isocianato e hidroxila (NCO/OH) e a proporção em equivalente-grama de PPG e dos copolímeros em bloco (EG-b-PG). Foi observado que a incorporação de altas quantidades de copolímero dificultou a síntese dos poliuretanos dispersos em água, levando à formação de géis. O tamanho médio de partícula e a viscosidade das dispersões foram determinados. Os filmes vazados a partir dessas dispersões foram avaliados quanto à capacidade de absorção de água, resistência mecânica, termogravimetria (TG), e caracterizados por espectroscopia na região do infravermelho (FTIR). As dispersões poliuretânicas produzidas se mostraram satisfatórias quando aplicadas como revestimento para madeira, metais e vidro

Fabrication, Characterization, And Deformation of 3D Structural Meta-Materials

Current technological advances in fabrication methods have provided pathways to creating architected structural meta-materials similar to those found in natural organisms that are structurally robust and lightweight, such as diatoms. Structural meta-materials are materials with mechanical properties that are determined by material properties at various length scales, which range from the material microstructure (nm) to the macro-scale architecture (μm – mm). It is now possible to exploit material size effect, which emerge at the nanometer length scale, as well as structural effects to tune the material properties and failure mechanisms of small-scale cellular solids, such as nanolattices. This work demonstrates the fabrication and mechanical properties of 3-dimensional hollow nanolattices in both tension and compression. Hollow gold nanolattices loaded in uniaxial compression demonstrate that strength and stiffness vary as a function of geometry and tube wall thickness. Structural effects were explored by increasing the unit cell angle from 30° to 60° while keeping all other parameters constant; material size effects were probed by varying the tube wall thickness, t, from 200nm to 635nm, at a constant relative density and grain size. In-situ uniaxial compression experiments reveal an order-of-magnitude increase in yield stress and modulus in nanolattices with greater lattice angles, and a 150% increase in the yield strength without a concomitant change in modulus in thicker-walled nanolattices for fixed lattice angles. These results imply that independent control of structural and material size effects enables tunability of mechanical properties of 3-dimensional architected meta-materials and highlight the importance of material, geometric, and microstructural effects in small-scale mechanics. This work also explores the flaw tolerance of 3D hollow-tube alumina kagome nanolattices with and without pre-fabricated notches, both in experiment and simulation. Experiments demonstrate that the hollow kagome nanolattices in uniaxial tension always fail at the same load when the ratio of notch length (a) to sample width (w) is no greater than 1/3, with no correlation between failure occurring at or away from the notch. For notches with (a/w) > 1/3, the samples fail at lower peak loads and this is attributed to the increased compliance as fewer unit cells span the un-notched region. Finite element simulations of the kagome tension samples show that the failure is governed by tensile loading for (a/w) < 1/3 but as (a/w) increases, bending begins to play a significant role in the failure. This work explores the flaw sensitivity of hollow alumina kagome nanolattices in tension, using experiments and simulations, and demonstrates that the discrete-continuum duality of architected structural meta-materials gives rise to their flaw insensitivity even when made entirely of intrinsically brittle materials.