Effect of pH and temperature on the formation of volatile compounds in cysteine/reducing sugar/starch mixtures during extrusion cooking

Mixtures of cysteine, reducing sugar (xylose or glucose), and starch were extrusion cooked using feed pH values of 5.5, 6.5, and 7.5 and target die temperatures of 120, 150, and 180 degreesC. Volatile compounds were isolated by headspace trapping onto Tenax and analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Eighty and 38 compounds, respectively, were identified from extrudates prepared using glucose and xylose. Amounts of most compounds increased with temperature and pH. Aliphatic sulfur compounds, thiophenes, pyrazines, and thiazoles were the most abundant chemical classes for the glucose samples, whereas for xylose extrudates highest levels were obtained for non-sulfur-containing furans, thiophenes, sulfur-containing furans, and pyrazines. 2-Furanmethanethiol and 2-methyl-3-furanthiol were present in extrudates prepared using both sugars, but levels were higher in xylose samples. The profiles of reaction products were different from those obtained from aqueous or reduced-moisture systems based on cysteine and either glucose or ribose.

Density-viscosity product of small-volume ionic liquid samples using quartz crystal impedance analysis

Quartz crystal impedance analysis has been developed as a technique to assess whether room-temperature ionic liquids are Newtonian fluids and as a small-volume method for determining the values of their viscosity-density product, rho eta. Changes in the impedance spectrum of a 5-MHz fundamental frequency quartz crystal induced by a water-miscible room-temperature ionic liquid, 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium. trifluoromethylsulfonate ([C(4)mim][OTf]), were measured. From coupled frequency shift and bandwidth changes as the concentration was varied from 0 to 100% ionic liquid, it was determined that this liquid provided a Newtonian response. A second water-immiscible ionic liquid, 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide [C(4)mim][NTf2], with concentration varied using methanol, was tested and also found to provide a Newtonian response. In both cases, the values of the square root of the viscosity-density product deduced from the small-volume quartz crystal technique were consistent with those measured using a viscometer and density meter. The third harmonic of the crystal was found to provide the closest agreement between the two measurement methods; the pure ionic liquids had the largest difference of similar to 10%. In addition, 18 pure ionic liquids were tested, and for 11 of these, good-quality frequency shift and bandwidth data were obtained; these 12 all had a Newtonian response. The frequency shift of the third harmonic was found to vary linearly with square root of viscosity-density product of the pure ionic liquids up to a value of root(rho eta) approximate to 18 kg m(-2) s(-1/2), but with a slope 10% smaller than that predicted by the Kanazawa and Gordon equation. It is envisaged that the quartz crystal technique could be used in a high-throughput microfluidic system for characterizing ionic liquids.

Sorption behavior of cationic and anionic dyes from aqueous solution on different types of activated carbons

The effect of dye molecular charges on their adsorption from solution was investigated by using different types of activated carbon adsorbents. Two types of model systems were used representing cationic and anionic dyes. Screening investigations using single point tests were used throughout the study. Cationic dyes, of which Methylene Blue is an example, showed a higher adsorption tendency towards activated carbon over anionic dyes represented by an ate-type reactive compound. Of the number of activated carbons tested, only one of the adsorbents showed an exception to this behavior, and a good relation was observed between Methylene Blue capacity and activated carbon performance. The high capacity of cationic dyes in comparison to anionic dyes was also evident in the results obtained by a preliminary kinetic study carried out on the selected systems. Surface net charge of activated carbon and the nature of attractions between the molecules were suggested to be one of the reasons attributed for this behavior.

Kinetics of Aqueous Phase Dehydration of Xylose into Furfural Catalyzed by ZSM-5 Zeolite

ZSM-5 zeolite in H+ form with an average pore size of 1.2 nm was used for aqueous phase dehydration of xylose to furfural at low temperatures;, that is, from 413 to 493 K. The selectivity in furfural increased with the temperature to a value of 473 K. Beyond this temperature, condensation reactions were significant and facilitated by the intrinsic structure of ZSM-5. A reaction mechanism that included isomerization of xylose to lyxose, dehydration of lyxose and xylose to furfural, fragmentation of furfural to organic acids, oligomerization of furfural to bi- and tridimensional furilic species, and complete dehydration of organic acids to carbonaceous deposits was developed, and the associated kinetic parameters were estimated. The rate of furfural production was found to be more sensitive to temperature than the rates of side reactions, with an estimated activation energy of 32.1 kcal/mol. This value correlated well with data in the literature obtained by homogeneous catalytic dehydration.

Liquid-liquid miscibility and volumetric properties of aqueous solutions of ionic liquids as a function of temperature

The volumetric properties of seven {water + ionic liquid} binary mixtures have been studied as a function of temperature from (293 to 343) K. The phase behaviour of the systems was first investigated using a nephelometric method and excess molar volumes were calculated from densities measured using an Anton Paar densimeter and fitted using a Redlich-Kister type equation. Two ionic liquids fully miscible with water (1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate ([CCIm][BF]) and 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium ethylsulfate ([CCIm][EtSO])) and five ionic liquids only partially miscible with water (1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide ([CCIm][NTf]), 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide ([CCIm][NTf]), 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate ([CCIm][PF]), 1-butyl-3-methylpyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide ([CCPyrro][NTf]), and butyltrimethylammonium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide ([N][NTf])) were chosen. Small excess volumes (less than 0.5 cm · mol at 298 K) are obtained compared with the molar volumes of the pure components (less than 0.3% of the molar volume of the pure ionic liquid). For all the considered systems, except for {[CCIm][EtSO] + water}, positive excess molar volumes were calculated. Finally, an increase of the non-ideality character is observed for all the systems as temperature increases. © 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Adsorption of basic dyes from aqueous solution onto activated carbons

The aim of this research is to compare the adsorption capacity of different types of activated carbons produced by steam activation in small laboratory scale and large industrial scale processes. Equilibrium behaviour of the activated carbons was investigated by performing batch adsorption experiments using bottle-point method. Basic dyes (methylene blue (MB), basic red (BR) and basic yellow (BY)) were used as adsorbates and the maximum adsorptive capacity was determined. Adsorption isotherm models, Langmuir, Freundlich and Redlich-Peterson were used to simulate the equilibrium data at different experimental parameters (pH and adsorbent particle size). It was found that PAC2 (activated carbon produced from New Zealand coal using steam activation) has the highest adsorptive capacity towards MB dye (588 mg/g) followed by F400 (476 mg/g) and PAC 1 (380 mg/g). BR and BY showed higher adsorptive affinity towards PAC2 and F400 than MB. Under comparable conditions, adsorption capacity of basic dyes, MB, BR and BY onto PAC 1, PAC2 and F400 increased in the order: MB <BR <BY. Redlich-Peterson model was found to describe the experimental data over the entire range of concentration under investigation. All the systems show favourable adsorption of the basic dyes with 0 <R-L <I (C) 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Effect of pooling samples on the efficiency of comparative studies using microarrays

Motivation: Many biomedical experiments are carried out by pooling individual biological samples. However, pooling samples can potentially hide biological variance and give false confidence concerning the data significance. In the context of microarray experiments for detecting differentially expressed genes, recent publications have addressed the problem of the efficiency of sample pooling, and some approximate formulas were provided for the power and sample size calculations. It is desirable to have exact formulas for these calculations and have the approximate results checked against the exact ones. We show that the difference between the approximate and the exact results can be large.

Solvation of 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate in aqueous ethanol - a green solution for dissolving 'hydrophobic' ionic liquids

The relatively hydrophobic ionic liquid 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate has been found to be totally miscible with aqueous ethanol between 0.5 and 0.9 mol fraction ethanol, whereas the ionic liquid is only partially miscible with either pure water or absolute ethanol; the ability to dissolve 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate in a 'green' aqueous solvent system has important implications for cleaning, purification, and separations using ionic liquids.

Application of poly(ethylene glycol)-based aqueous biphasic systems as reaction and reactive extraction media

Poly(ethylene glycol)-based aqueous biphasic systems (PEG-ABSs) have been investigated as tunable reaction media, in the example presented here, to control the oxidation of cyclohexene to adipic acid with hydrogen peroxide. The production of adipic acid was found to increase from the monophasic to the biphasic regimes, was greatest at short tie-line lengths (close to the system's critical point), and demonstrates how control of the ABS media, through changes in system composition, PEG, salt, and tie-line length, can be used to readily tune and control reactivity and product isolation in these aqueous biphasic reactive extraction systems. Challenges in using this system, including possible oxidation reactions of the PEG-OH end groups, are also discussed.