Efficacy of multispecies pheromone lures for Carpophilus davidsoni Dobson and Carpophilus mutilatus Erichson (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae)

Orchard experiments were conducted in southern New South Wales to evaluate the efficacy of multispecies pheromone lures in trapping two economically important species of Carpophilus. Captures of Carpophilus davidsoni Dobson and Carpophilus mutilatus Erichson in traps baited with aggregation pheromones of both species or a three-way lure that also included the pheromone of Carpophilus hemipterus (L.) were not significantly different from captures in traps baited with conspecific pheromones. Carpophilus davidsoni and C. mutilatus were cross-attracted to traps baited with the pheromone of the other species, but numbers were significantly reduced compared with traps baited with conspecific or heterospecific pheromones. Multispecies lures will improve prospects for the commercial use of synthetic aggregation pheromones in Carpophilus beetle management in stone-fruit orchards.

Phenology of Carpophilus spp. (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae)in stone fruit orchards as determined by pheromone trapping: Implications for prediction of crop damage

Traps baited with synthetic aggregation pheromone and fermenting bread dough were used to monitor seasonal incidence and abundance of the ripening fruit pests, Carpophilus hemipterus (L.), C. mutilatus Erichson and C. davidsoni Dobson in stone fruit orchards in the Leeton district of southern New South Wales during five seasons (1991-96). Adult beetles were trapped from September-May, but abundance varied considerably between years with the amount of rainfall in December-January having a major influence on population size and damage potential during the canning peach harvest (late February-March). Below average rainfall in December-January was associated with mean trap catches of < 10 beetles/trap/week in low dose pheromone traps during the harvest period in 1991/92 and 1993/94 and no reported damage to ripening fruit. Rainfall in December-January 1992/93 was more than double the average and mean trap catches ranged from 8-27 beetles/week during the harvest period with substantial damage to the peach crop. December-January rainfall was also above average in 1994/95 and 1995/96 and means of 50-300 beetles/trap/week were recorded in high dose pheromone traps during harvest periods. Carpophilus spp. caused economic damage to peach crops in both seasons. These data indicate that it may be possible to predict the likelihood of Carpophilus beetle damage to ripening stone fruit in inland areas of southern Australia, by routine pheromone-based monitoring of beetle populations and summer temperatures and rainfall.

Population ecology of Heteronyx piceus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) in a peanut/maize cropping system

Large larval populations of the scarabaeid beetle Heteronyx piceus Blanchard that occur under peanuts, but not maize, in the South Burnett region of Australia are the result of a high rate and prolonged period of egg production by females feeding on peanut foliage. Heteronyx piceus is a relatively sedentary species and movement of females between adjacent fields is low. Populations of H. piceus varied markedly with landscape position. High larval populations are more likely (1 in 4 chance) to be encountered on the ‘scrub’ soils in the upper parts of the landscape than in the ‘forest’ soils in the lower half (1 in 20 chance), indicating that soil type/landscape position is a key risk factor in assessing the need for management intervention. The studies indicate that, because of the species' sedentary nature, the most meaningful population entity for management of H. piceus is the individual field, rather than the whole-farm or the region. The implications of this population ecology for management of the pest are discussed in relation to control strategies.

Rural energy consumption patterns - A field study

This paper is a condensed version of the final report of a detailed field study of rural energy consumption patterns in six villages located west of Bangalore in the dry belt of Karnataka State in India. The study was carried out in two phases; first, a pilot study of four villages and second, the detailed study of six villages, the populations of which varied from around 350 to about 950. The pilot survey ended in late 1976, and most of the data was collected for the main project in 1977. Processing of the collected data was completed in 1980. The aim was to carry out a census survey, rather than a sample study. Hence, considerable effort was expended in production of both a suitable questionnaire, ensuring that all respondents were contacted, and devising methods which would accurately reflect the actual energy use in various energy-utilising activities. In the end, 560 households out of 578 (97%) were surveyed. The following ranking was found for the various energy sources in order of average percentage contribution to the annual total energy requirement: firewood, 81·6%; human energy, 7·7%; animal energy, 2·7%; kerosene, 2·1%; electricity, 0·6% and all other sources (rice husks, agro-wastes, coal and diesel fuel), 5·3%. In other words commercial fuels made only a small contribution to the overall energy use. It should be noted that dung cakes are not burned in this region. The average energy use pattern, sector by sector, again on a percentage basis, was as follows: domestic, 88·3%; industry, 4·7%; agriculture, 4·3%; lighting, 2·2% and transport, 0·5%. The total annual per capita energy consumption was 12·6 ± 1·2 GJ, giving an average annual household consumption of around 78·6 GJ.

Assessing the relationship between patch type and soil mites: A molecular approach

An urgent need exists for indicators of soil health and patch functionality in extensive rangelands that can be measured efficiently and at low cost. Soil mites are candidate indicators, but their identification and handling is so specialised and time-consuming that their inclusion in routine monitoring is unlikely. The aim of this study was to measure the relationship between patch type and mite assemblages using a conventional approach. An additional aim was to determine if a molecular approach traditionally used for soil microbes could be adapted for soil mites to overcome some of the bottlenecks associated with soil fauna diversity assessment. Soil mite species abundance and diversity were measured using conventional ecological methods in soil from patches with perennial grass and litter cover (PGL), and compared to soil from bare patches with annual grasses and/or litter cover (BAL). Soil mite assemblages were also assessed using a molecular method called terminal-restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP) analysis. The conventional data showed a relationship between patch type and mite assemblage. The Prostigmata and Oribatida were well represented in the PGL sites, particularly the Aphelacaridae (Oribatida). For T-RFLP analysis, the mite community was represented by a series of DNA fragment lengths that reflected mite sequence diversity. The T-RFLP data showed a distinct difference in the mite assemblage between the patch types. Where possible, T-RFLP peaks were matched to mite families using a reference 18S rDNA database, and the Aphelacaridae prevalent in the conventional samples at PGL sites were identified, as were prostigmatids and oribatids. We identified limits to the T-RFLP approach and this included an inability to distinguish some species whose DNA sequences were similar. Despite these limitations, the data still showed a clear difference between sites, and the molecular taxonomic inferences also compared well with the conventional ecological data. The results from this study indicated that the T-RFLP approach was effective in measuring mite assemblages in this system. The power of this technique lies in the fact that species diversity and abundance data can be obtained quickly because of the time taken to process hundreds of samples, from soil DNA extraction to data output on the gene analyser, can be as little as 4 days.

Developments in controlled green-water larval culture technologies for estuarine fishes in Queensland, Australia and elsewhere

Since 1989, researchers with the Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (DPI&F) in Queensland, Australia, have successfully used controlled low-water exchange green-water cultures to rear the larvae of estuarine fishes and crustaceans through to metamorphosis. High survivals and excellent fry condition have been achieved for several commercially important endemic species produced for various projects. They include barramundi or sea bass, Lates calcarifer, Australian bass, Macquaria novemaculeata, dusky flathead, Platycephalus fuscus, sand whiting, Sillago ciliata, red sea bream or snapper, Pagrus auratus, banana prawn, Fenneropenaeus merguiensis, and others. The consistent success of our standardised and relatively simple approach at different localities has led to it being incorporated into general fingerling production practices at several establishments in Australia. Although post-metamorphosis rearing methods have differed for each species investigated, due to various biological and behavioural traits and project requirements, these larval rearing methods have been successful with few species-specific modifications. Initially modelled on the Taiwanese approach to rearing Penaeids in aerated low-water exchange cultures, the approach similarly appears to rely on a beneficial assemblage of micro-organisms. Conceptually, these micro-organisms may include a mixture of the air-borne primary invaders of pure phytoplankton cultures when exposed to outdoor conditions. Whilst this would vary with different sites, our experiences with these methods have consistently been favourable. Mass microalgal cultures with eco-physiological youth are used to regularly augment larval fish cultures so that rearing conditions simulate an exponential growth-phase microalgal bloom. Moderate to heavy aeration prevents settlement of particulate matter and encourages aerobic bacterial decomposition of wastes. The green-water larval rearing approach described herein has demonstrated high practical utility in research and commercial applications, and has greatly simplified marine finfish hatchery operations whilst generally lifting production capacities for metamorphosed fry in Australia. Its potential uses in areas of aquaculture other than larviculture are also discussed.

Counterclockwise exhumation of a hot orogen: The Paleoproterozoic ultrahigh-temperature granulites in the North China Craton

Regional metamorphic belts provide important constraints on the plate tectonic architecture of orogens. We report here a detailed petrologic examination of the sapphirine-bearing ultra-high temperature (UHT) granulites from the Jining Complex within the Khondalite Belt of the North China Craton (NCC). These granulites carry diagnostic UHT assemblages and their microstructures provide robust evidence to trace the prograde, peak and retrograde metamorphic evolution. The P–T conditions of the granulites estimated from XMgGrt(Mg/Fe + Mg) − XMgSpr isopleth calculations indicate temperature above 970 °C and pressures close to 7 kbar. We present phase diagrams based on thermodynamic computations to evaluate the mineral assemblages and microstructures and trace the metamorphic trajectory of the rocks. The evolution from Spl–Qtz–Ilm–Crd–Grt–Sil to Spr–Qtz–Crd–Opx–Ilm marks the prograde stage. The Spl–Qtz assemblage appears on the low-pressure side of the P–T space with Spr–Qtz stable at the high-pressure side, possibly representing an increase in pressure corresponding to compression. The spectacular development of sapphirine rims around spinel enclosed in quartz supports this inference. An evaluation of the key UHT assemblages based on model proportion calculation suggests a counterclockwise P–T path. With few exceptions, granulite-facies rocks developed along collisional metamorphic zones have generally been characterized by clockwise exhumation trajectories. Recent evaluation of the P–T paths of metamorphic rocks developed within collisional orogens indicates that in many cases the exhumation trajectories follow the model subduction geotherm, in accordance with a tectonic model in which the metamorphic rocks are subducted and exhumed along a plate boundary. The timing of UHT metamorphism in the NCC (c. 1.92 Ga) coincides with the assembly of the NCC within the Paleoproterozoic Columbia supercontinent, a process that would have involved subduction of passive margins sediments and closure of the intervening ocean. Thus, the counterclockwise P–T path obtained in this study correlates well with a tectonic model involving subduction and final collisional suturing, with the UHT granulites representing the core of the hot or ultra-hot orogen developed during Columbia amalgamation.

Baseline responses of Alphitobius diaperinus (Coleoptera : Tenebrionidae) to cyfluthrin and detection of strong resistance in field populations in eastern Australia

Resistance to cyfluthrin in broiler farm populations of lesser mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), in eastern Australia was suspected to have contributed to recent control failures. In 2000-2001, beetles from 11 broiler farms were tested for resistance by comparing them to an insecticide-susceptible reference population by using topical application. Resistance was detected in almost all beetle populations (up to 22 times the susceptible at the LC50), especially in southeastern Queensland where more cyfluthrin applications had been made. Two from outside southeastern Queensland were found to be susceptible. Dose-mortality data generated from the reference population over a range of cyflutbrin concentrations showed that 0.0007% cyfluthrin at a LC99.9 level could be used as a convenient dose to discriminate between susceptible and resistant populations. Using this discriminating concentration, from 2001 to 2005, the susceptibilities of 18 field populations were determined. Of these, 11 did not exhibit complete mortality at the discriminating concentration (mortality range 2.8-97.7%), and in general, cyfluthrin resistance was directly related to the numbers of cyfluthrin applications. As in the full study, populations outside of southeastern Queensland were found to have lower levels of resistance or were susceptible. One population from an intensively farmed broiler area in southeastern Queensland exhibited low mortality despite having no known exposure to cyfluthrin. Comparisons of LC50 values of three broiler populations and a susceptible population, collected in 2000 and 2001 and recollected in 2004 and 2005 indicated that values from the three broiler populations had increased over this time for all populations. The continued use of cyfluthrin for control of A. diaperinus in eastern Australia is currently under consideration.

Baseline responses of Alphitobius diaperinus (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) to spinosad, and susceptibility of broiler populations in eastern and southern Australia

Spinosad was proposed as a potential chemical for control of lesser mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), in Australian broiler houses after the detection of strong cyfluthrin resistance in many beetle populations. In 2004-2006, spinosad susceptibility of 13 beetle populations from eastern and southern Australian broiler houses and a cyfluthrin/fenitrothion-resistant reference population was determined using topical application, and was compared with the susceptibility of an insecticide-susceptible reference population. Comparisons of dose-response curves and baseline data showed that all populations, including the insecticide-susceptible population, were roughly equivalent in their response to spinosad, indicating no preexisting spinosad resistance. Two field populations, including the resistant reference population, which had confirmed cyfluthrin/fenitrothion- resistance, showed no cross-resistance to spinosad. There was no significant correlation between beetle weight and LC99.9. A discriminating concentration of 3% spinosad was set to separate resistant and susceptible individuals. Considering the levels of spinosad resistance that have been recorded in other insect pests, the sustained future usefulness of spinosad as a broiler house treatment will rely on effective integrated beetle management programs combined with carefully planned chemical use strategies.

Direct and indirect effects of egg parasitism by Neopolycystus Girault sp. (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) on Paropsis atomaria Olivier (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae).

Neopolycystus sp. is the only primary egg parasitoid associated with the pest beetle Paropsis atomaria in subtropical eucalypt plantations, but its impact on its host populations is unknown. The simplified ecosystem represented by the plantation habitat, lack of interspecific competition for host and parasitoid, and the multivoltinism of the host population makes this an ideal system for quantifying the direct and indirect effects of egg parasitism, and hence, effects on host population dynamics. Within-, between- and overall-egg-batch parasitism rates were determined at three field sites over two field seasons, and up to seven host generations. The effect of exposure time (egg batch age), host density proximity to native forest and water sources on egg parasitism rates was also tested. Neopolycystus sp. exerts a significant influence on P. atomaria populations in Eucalyptus cloeziana. plantations in south-eastern Queensland, causing the direct (13%) and indirect (15%) mortality of almost one-third of all eggs in the field. Across seasons and generations, 45% of egg batches were parasitised, with a within-batch parasitism rate of around 30%. Between-batch parasitism increased up to 5-6 days after oviposition in the field, although within-batch parasitism rates generally did not. However, there were few apparent patterns to egg parasitism, with rates often varying significantly between sites and seasons.

Retrogressed eclogite (20 kbar, 1020 °C) from the Neoproterozoic Palghat–Cauvery suture zone, southern India

The Palghat–Cauvery suture zone in southern India separates Archaean crustal blocks to the north and the Proterozoic Madurai block to the south. Here we present the first detailed study of a partially retrogressed eclogite (from within the Sittampundi anorthositic complex in the suture zone) that occurs as a 20-cm wide layer in a garnet gabbro layer in anorthosite. The eclogite largely consists of an assemblage of coexisting porphyroblasts of almandine–pyrope garnet and augitic clinopyroxene. However, a few garnets contain inclusions of omphacite. Rims and symplectites composed of Na–Ca amphibole and plagioclase form a retrograde assemblage. Petrographic analysis and calculated phase equilibria indicate that garnet–omphacite–rutile–melt was the peak metamorphic assemblage and that it formed at ca. 20 kbar and above 1000 °C. The eclogite was exhumed on a very tight hairpin-type, anticlockwise P–T path, which we relate to subduction and exhumation in the Palghat–Cauvery suture zone. The REE composition of the minerals suggests a basaltic oceanic crustal protolith metamorphosed in a subduction regime. Geological–structural relations combined with geophysical data from the Palghat–Cauvery suture zone suggest that the eclogite facies metamorphism was related to formation of the suture zone. Closure of the Mozambique Ocean led to development of the suture zone and to its western extension in the Betsimisaraka suture of Madagascar.

Thermal requirements, field mortality and population phenology modelling of Paropsis atomaria Olivier, an emergent pest in subtropical hardwood plantations

Paropsis atomaria is a recently emerged pest of eucalypt plantations in subtropical Australia. Its broad host range of at least 20 eucalypt species and wide geographical distribution provides it the potential to become a serious forestry pest both within Australia and, if accidentally introduced, overseas. Although populations of P. atomaria are genetically similar throughout its range, population dynamics differ between regions. Here, we determine temperature-dependent developmental requirements using beetles sourced from temperate and subtropical zones by calculating lower temperature thresholds, temperature-induced mortality, and day-degree requirements. We combine these data with field mortality estimates of immature life stages to produce a cohort-based model, ParopSys, using DYMEX™ that accurately predicts the timing, duration, and relative abundance of life stages in the field and number of generations in a spring–autumn (September–May) field season. Voltinism was identified as a seasonally plastic trait dependent upon environmental conditions, with two generations observed and predicted in the Australian Capital Territory, and up to four in Queensland. Lower temperature thresholds for development ranged between 4 and 9 °C, and overall development rates did not differ according to beetle origin. Total immature development time (egg–adult) was approximately 769.2 ± S.E. 127.8 DD above a lower temperature threshold of 6.4 ± S.E. 2.6 °C. ParopSys provides a basic tool enabling forest managers to use the number of generations and seasonal fluctuations in abundance of damaging life stages to estimate the pest risk of P. atomaria prior to plantation establishment, and predict the occurrence and duration of damaging life stages in the field. Additionally, by using local climatic data the pest potential of P. atomaria can be estimated to predict the risk of it establishing if accidentally introduced overseas. Improvements to ParopSys’ capability and complexity can be made as more biological data become available.

Approaches to selecting native plant replacements for fleshy-fruited invasive species

Invasive plants are a serious threat to biodiversity. Yet, in some cases, they may play an important ecological role in heavily modified landscapes, such as where fleshy-fruited invasive plants support populations of native frugivores. How can such conservation conflicts be managed? We advocate an approach in which native fleshy-fruited plants are ranked on their ability to provide the fruit food resources for native frugivores currently being provided by invasive plants. If these native taxa are preferentially used, where ecologically appropriate, in plantings for restoration and in park and garden settings, they could help support native frugivore populations in the event of extensive invasive plant control. We develop and critically examine six approaches to selecting candidate native plant taxa: a multivariate approach based on the frugivore assemblage, a scoring model, and several multivariate approaches (including trait combinations having the greatest correlation with the diet of the native frugivore assemblage) based on the functional traits of fruit morphology, phenology, conspicuousness, and accessibility. To illustrate these approaches, we use a case study with Bitou bush (Chrysanthemoides monilifera subsp. rotundata) (Asteraceae), an Australian Weed of National Significance. The model using a dissimilarity value generated from all available traits identified a set of species used by the frugivores of C. monilifera more than null models. A replacement approach using species ranked by either all traits available or the frugivore community appears best suited to guide selection of plants in restoration practice.

Cassowary dispersal of the invasive pond apple in a tropical rainforest: the contribution of subordinate dispersal modes in invasion.

Dispersal is a significant determinant of the pattern and process of invasions; however, weed dispersal distances are rarely described and descriptions of dispersal kernels are completely lacking for vertebrate-dispersed weeds. Here, we describe dispersal kernels generated by a native disperser, the endangered southern cassowary (Casuarius casuarius, L.) for an invasive, tropical rainforest plant, pond apple (Annona glabra, L.). Pond apple is primarily water-dispersed and is managed as such. We consider whether cassowary dispersal, as a numerically subordinate dispersal mode, provides an additional dispersal service that may modify the invasion process. In infested areas, pond apple seed was common in cassowary dung. Gut passage had no effect on the probability of single seed germination but deposition in clumps or as whole fruits reduced the probability of germination below that of single seeds. Gut passage times ranged from 65 to 1675 min. Combined with cassowary movement data, this resulted in estimated dispersal distances of 12.5-5212 m, with a median distance of 387 m (quartile range 112-787 m). Native frugivores can be effective dispersers of weeds in rainforest and even terrestrial dispersers can provide long-distance dispersal. Importantly, though pond apple might be expected to be almost entirely dispersed downstream and along the margins of aquatic and marine habitats, cassowaries provide dispersal upstream and between drainages, leading to novel dispersal outcomes. Even through the provision of small quantities of novel dispersal outcomes, subordinate dispersal modes can play a significant role in determining invasion pattern and influence the ultimate success of control programs by providing dispersal to locations unattainable via the primary mode.

A new species of Pseudatrichia Osten Sacken (Diptera: Scenopinidae) from North America

A new species of the North American genus Pseudatrichia Osten Sacken is described. Pseudatrichia bezarki sp. nov. is described based on a male and female reared from wood-boring beetle galleries in Pinus sp. from Arizona (United States).