Population phylogenomic analysis of mitochondrial DNA in wild boars and domestic pigs revealed multiple domestication events in East Asia

Background: Previously reported evidence indicates that pigs were independently domesticated in multiple places throughout the world. However, a detailed picture of the origin and dispersal of domestic pigs in East Asia has not yet been reported. Results:

Impedance control is tuned to multiple directions of movement

Humans are able to learn tool-handling tasks, such as carving, demonstrating their competency to make and vary the direction of movements in unstable environments. It has been shown that when a single reaching movement is repeated in unstable dynamics, the central nervous system (CNS) learns an impedance internal model to compensate for the environment instability. However, there is still no explanation for how humans can learn to move in various directions in such environments. In this study, we investigated whether and how humans compensate for instability while learning two different reaching movements simultaneously. Results show that when performing movements in two different directions, separated by a 35° angle, the CNS was able to compensate for the unstable dynamics. After adaptation, the force was found to be similar to the free movement condition, but stiffness increased in the direction of instability, specifically for each direction of movement. Our findings suggest that the CNS either learned an internal model generalizing over different movements, or alternatively that it was able to switch between specific models acquired simultaneously. © 2008 IEEE.

Impedance control is selectively tuned to multiple directions of movement

Humans are able to learn tool-handling tasks, such as carving, demonstrating their competency to make movements in unstable environments with varied directions. When faced with a single direction of instability, humans learn to selectively co-contract their arm muscles tuning the mechanical stiffness of the limb end point to stabilize movements. This study examines, for the first time, subjects simultaneously adapting to two distinct directions of instability, a situation that may typically occur when using tools. Subjects learned to perform reaching movements in two directions, each of which had lateral instability requiring control of impedance. The subjects were able to adapt to these unstable interactions and switch between movements in the two directions; they did so by learning to selectively control the end-point stiffness counteracting the environmental instability without superfluous stiffness in other directions. This finding demonstrates that the central nervous system can simultaneously tune the mechanical impedance of the limbs to multiple movements by learning movement-specific solutions. Furthermore, it suggests that the impedance controller learns as a function of the state of the arm rather than a general strategy. © 2011 the American Physiological Society.