Professionalisation of sport federations – A multi-level framework for analysing forms, causes and consequences

Research question: International and national sport federations as well as their member organisations are key actors within the sport system and have a wide range of relationships outside the sport system (e.g. with the state, sponsors, and the media). They are currently facing major challenges such as growing competition in top-level sports, democratisation of sports with ‘sports for all’ and sports as the answer to social problems. In this context, professionalising sport organisations seems to be an appropriate strategy to face these challenges and current problems. We define the professionalisation of sport organisations as an organisational process of transformation leading towards organisational rationalisation, efficiency and business-like management. This has led to a profound organisational change, particularly within sport federations, characterised by the strengthening of institutional management (managerialism) and the implementation of efficiency-based management instruments and paid staff. Research methods: The goal of this article is to review the current international literature and establish a global understanding of and theoretical framework for analysing why and how sport organisations professionalise and what consequences this may have. Results and findings: Our multi-level approach based on the social theory of action integrates the current concepts for analysing professionalisation in sport federations. We specify the framework for the following research perspectives: (1) forms, (2) causes and (3) consequences, and discuss the reciprocal relations between sport federations and their member organisations in this context. Implications: Finally, we work out a research agenda and derive general methodological consequences for the investigation of professionalisation processes in sport organisations.

Professionalisation of sports federations – A multi-level framework for analysing forms, causes and consequences

Introduction: International and national sports federations as well as their member organisations (usually sports clubs) are key actors within the sports system and have a wide range of relationships outside the sports system (e.g. with the state, sponsors, and the media). They are currently facing major challenges such as growing competition in top-­‐level sports, democratisation of sports with “sports for all” and sports as the answer to social problems (integration, education, health, unemployment, etc.). In this context, professionalising sports organisations seems to be an appropriate strategy to face these challenges and solve current problems. This has led to a profound organisational change, particularly within sports federations, characterised by the strengthening of institutional management (managerialism) and the implementation of efficiency-­‐based management instruments and paid staff. In this context the questions arise how sports organisations professionalise and what consequences this may have. Theoretical framework: The goal of our presentation is to review the international literature and develop an appropriate concept of professionalisation in sport federations. Our multi-­‐level approach based on social theory of action integrates the current concepts and perspectives for analysing professionalisation in sports federations. We specify the framework for the following research perspectives: (1) forms, (2) causes and mechanisms, (3) consequences and (4) dynamics, and discuss the reciprocal relations between sports federations and their member organisations in this context. When analysing these different research perspectives, it is important to select or elaborate appropriate theoretical concepts to match the general multi-­‐level framework Discussion: The elaborated multi-­‐level framework for analysing professionalisation in sports federations is able to integrate most of the existing theoretical concepts and therefore, the broad range of endogenous as well as exogenous factors that might influence the professionalisation of sports organisations. Based on the theoretical framework, we can identify several consequences for the methodological design of studies intending to analyse the different perspectives of professionalisation in sports organisations: Data have to be collected on the different levels. Not only the forms of professionalisation and relevant structures of the organisations should be taken into account but also important characteristics of the environment (macro level) as well as members or member organisations, particularly key actors who might play a crucial role in gaining an understanding of professionalisation processes in sports organisations. In order to carry out a complex organisational research design, it seems necessary to focus on case studies – an approach that has become increasingly important in organisational research. Different strategies and methods of data collection have to be used within the case studies (e.g. interviews with experts within the organisations, questionnaire for selected people in the organisation, document analysis). Therefore, qualitative and quantitative research strategies have to be combined.

Clinical Practice Recommendations For The Management And Prevention Of Cisplatin-Induced Hearing Loss Using Pharmacogenetic Markers

Currently no pharmacogenomics-based criteria exist to guide clinicians in identifying individuals who are at risk of hearing loss from cisplatin-based chemotherapy. This review summarizes findings from pharmacogenomic studies that report genetic polymorphisms associated with cisplatin-induced hearing loss and aims to (1) provide up-to-date information on new developments in the field; (2) provide recommendations for the use of pharmacogenetic testing in the prevention, assessment and management of cisplatin-induced hearing loss in children and adults; and (3) identify knowledge gaps to direct and prioritize future research. These practice recommendations for pharmacogenetic testing in the context of cisplatin-induced hearing loss reflect a review and evaluation of recent literature and are designed to assist clinicians in providing optimal clinical care for patients receiving cisplatin based chemotherapy.

Internal and external effects on cognition: Evidence from memory training in very preterm-born children and cognition in patients with carotid artery stenosis before and after treatment

The present synopsis aims to integrate one study about memory training in very preterm-born children and two studies about cognition in patients with carotid artery stenosis before and after treatments. Preterm-born children are at increased risk of cognitive deficits and behavioural problems compared with peers born at term. This thesis determined whether memory training would improve cognitive functions in school-age very preterm-born children. Memory strategy training produced significant improvements in trained and non-trained cognitive functions; a core working memory training revealed significant effects on short-term memory and working memory tasks. Six months after training, children in both training groups showed better working memory performance than children in the waiting control group. This is evidence that memory training – an external influence on cognition – induces plastic changes in very preterm-born children. Patients with carotid artery stenosis are known to be at increased risk of cognitive impairment. We showed that patients with symptomatic or asymptomatic carotid artery stenosis were at higher risk for cognitive deficits than expected in a normative sample. This thesis seeks to link cognitive plasticity to internal factors like carotid stenosis. An external factor, which influences blood flow to the brain is the nature of the carotid artery stenosis treatment. Research on the effects of carotid artery stenosis treatment on cognition has produced inconsistent results. We found significant improvement in frontal lobe functions, visual memory and motor speed one year after treatment independent of the treatment type (best medical treatment, carotid artery stenting, carotid artery endarterectomy); providing evidence for ‘treatment-induced’ cognitive plasticity. Baseline performance was negatively associated with improvement in various cognitive functions after training in very preterm-born children and after treatment in patients with carotid artery stenosis. The present synopsis aims to integrate these findings into the current and relevant literature, and discuss consequences as well as methodological considerations resulting from the studies constituting the thesis at hand.

Genome characterization, prevalence and distribution of a Macula-like virus from Apis mellifera and Varroa destructor

Around 14 distinct virus species-complexes have been detected in honeybees, each with one or more strains or sub-species. Here we present the initial characterization of an entirely new virus species-complex discovered in honeybee (Apis mellifera L.) and varroa mite (Varroa destructor) samples from Europe and the USA. The virus has a naturally poly-adenylated RNA genome of about 6500 nucleotides with a genome organization and sequence similar to the Tymoviridae (Tymovirales; Tymoviridae), a predominantly plant-infecting virus family. Literature and laboratory analyses indicated that the virus had not previously been described. The virus is very common in French apiaries, mirroring the results from an extensive Belgian survey, but could not be detected in equally-extensive Swedish and Norwegian bee disease surveys. The virus appears to be closely linked to varroa, with the highest prevalence found in varroa samples and a clear seasonal distribution peaking in autumn, coinciding with the natural varroa population development. Sub-genomic RNA analyses show that bees are definite hosts, while varroa is a possible host and likely vector. The tentative name of Bee Macula-like virus (BeeMLV) is therefore proposed. A second, distantly related Tymoviridae-like virus was also discovered in varroa transcriptomes, tentatively named Varroa Tymo-like virus (VTLV).

The Perceived Prognosis of Endodontic Treatment and Implant Therapy Among Dental Practitioners

Little data concerning the perceived success of implant therapy in comparison with endodontic treatment exists. While the criteria used to measure the outcome of each modality are not the same, it is not clear if this is appreciated by practicing dentists. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the perceived outcome of implant therapy in comparison to endodontic treatment. A 23 question Web-based survey was distributed to 648 dentists who matriculated from the University of Connecticut School Of Dental Medicine over the past 30 years. The response rate was 47%. Sixty-seven percent of respondents were general dentists. Forty-nine percent of respondents did not know different criteria exist in the literature and are used to evaluate implant and root canal treatment. Fifty-four percent of dentists felt the prognosis of implant therapy was the same as or better than endodontic treatment of teeth with vital pulps. Thirty percent of responders thought root canal treatment of teeth with necrotic pulp was superior to implants and only 16% thought retreatment was preferable. Treatment planning for implant placement vs. retreatment of a restorable tooth was 46% and 32%, respectively. A third of the respondents felt that the role of endodontics will decline in the future. Dentists’ primary source of information regarding implant therapy was continuing education; however, their primary source of information regarding endodontic treatment was their dental program. Dentists felt the prognosis of implant therapy was as good or superior to endodontic treatment of teeth with vital, necrotic or previously treated pulps.

Corruption and Growth Under Weak Identification

The goal of this paper is to revisit the influential work of Mauro [1995] focusing on the strength of his results under weak identification. He finds a negative impact of corruption on investment and economic growth that appears to be robust to endogeneity when using two-stage least squares (2SLS). Since the inception of Mauro [1995], much literature has focused on 2SLS methods revealing the dangers of estimation and thus inference under weak identification. We reproduce the original results of Mauro [1995] with a high level of confidence and show that the instrument used in the original work is in fact 'weak' as defined by Staiger and Stock [1997]. Thus we update the analysis using a test statistic robust to weak instruments. Our results suggest that under Mauro's original model there is a high probability that the parameters of interest are locally almost unidentified in multivariate specifications. To address this problem, we also investigate other instruments commonly used in the corruption literature and obtain similar results.

Nature and community in Western culture: Wendell Berry's alternative tradition

This dissertation is an examination of the ideals and practices that have characterized Western culture's relationship to the natural world. The conventional approach, depicted by some of the most prominent ecological publications of recent years, criticizes the Western tradition for both its ideals and practices. The ideals are assumed to be best represented in Western philosophy and religion and both of these sources have been indicted. These ideals are coupled with the Western way of life that is equally indicted as exploitive and destructive. Author, professor and farmer, Wendell Berry, offers an alternative to these indictments. Berry insists that a theme, advocating ecological accountability, runs through some of the West's most significant literature and that Western tradition contains a practice that can support these ecological principles. ^

Strategy and Circumstance: the Response of American Firms to Japanese Competition in Semiconductors, 1980-1995

The transistor was an American invention, and American firms led the world in semiconductor production and innovation for the first three decades of that industry's existence. In the 1980s, however, Japanese producers began to challenge American dominance. Shrill cries arose from the literature of public policy, warning that the American semiconductor industry would soon share the fate of the lamented American consumer electronics business. Few dissented from the implications: the only hope for salvation would be to adopt Japanese-style public policies and imitate the kinds of capabilities Japanese firms possessed. But the predicted extinction never occurred. Instead, American firms surged back during the 1990s, and it now seems the Japanese who are embattled. This striking American turnaround has gone largely unremarked upon in the public policy literature. And even scholarship in strategic management, which thrives on stories of success instead of stories of failure, has been comparatively silent. Drawing on a more thorough economic history of the worldwide semiconductor industry (Langlois and Steinmueller 1999), this essay attempts to collect some of the lessons for strategy research of the American resurgence. We argue that, although some of the American response did consist in changing or augmenting capabilities, most of the renewed American success is in fact the result not of imitating superior Japanese capabilities but rather of taking good advantage of a set of capabilities developed in the heyday of American dominance. Serendipity played at least as important a role as did strategy.

Clinical, microbiological, and immunological markers of gingival and periodontal disease induction and progression

The potential impact of periodontal disease, a suspected risk factor for systemic diseases, presents challenges for health promotion and disease prevention strategies. This study examined clinical, microbiological, and immunological factors in a disease model to identify potential biomarkers that may be useful in predicting the onset and severity of both inflammatory and destructive periodontal disease. This project used an historical cohort design based on data obtained from 47 adult, female nonhuman primates followed over a 6-year period for 5 unique projects where the ligature-induced model of periodontitis was utilized. Standardization of protocols for sample collection allowed for comparison over time. Bleeding and pocket depth measures were selected as the dependent variables of relevance to humans based upon the literature and historical observations. Exposure variables included supragingival plaque, attachment level, total bacteria, black-pigmented bacteria, Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, total IgG and IgA in crevicular fluid, specific IgG antibody in both crevicular fluid and serum, and IgG antibody to four select pathogenic microorganisms. Three approaches were used to analyze the data from this study. The first approach tested for differences in the means of the response variables within the group and among longitudinal observations within the group at each time point. The second approach examined the relationship among the clinical, microbiological, and immunological variables using correlation coefficients and stratified analyses. Multivariable models using GEE for repeated measures were produced as a predictive description of the induction and progression of gingivitis and periodontal disease. The multivariable models for bleeding (gingivitis) include supragingival plaque, total bacteria and total IgG while the second also contains supragingival plaque, Gram-positive bacteria, and total IgG. Two multivariable models emerged for periodontal disease. One multivariable model contains plaque, total bacteria, total IgG and attachment level. The second model includes black-pigmented bacteria, total bacteria, antibody to Campylobacter rectus, and attachment level. Utilization of the nonhuman primate model to prospectively examine causal hypotheses can provide a focus for human research on the mechanisms of progression from health to gingivitis to periodontitis. Ultimately, causal theories can guide strategies to prevent disease initiation and reduce disease severity. ^

Anadromous Rainbow Smelt and Tomcod in Connecticut: Assessment of populations, conservation status, and need for restoration plan

(beginning of rainbow smelt executive summary) Evidence indicates that anadromous rainbow smelt (Osmerus mordax) populations in Connecticut and elsewhere in the northeast United States have severely declined. Several sampling programs have documented declines in Connecticut’s smelt populations over the last three decades (Marcy 1976a, Marcy 1976b, Millstone Environmental Laboratory 2005). Similar declines have also been documented in the Hudson River (ASA Analysis & Communication 2005) and in Massachusetts (personal communication, Brad Chase, MA Division of Marine Fisheries 2004). Recreational and commercial fisheries in the region for this species have virtually ceased (Blake and Smith 1984). The Connecticut Fish Advisory Committee of the Endangered Species Program has recommended that rainbow smelt be listed as threatened in Connecticut, and the National Marine Fisheries Service (2004) has recently listed rainbow smelt as a Federal Species of Concern. The purpose of this project is to develop an environmental history of rainbow smelt in Connecticut and surrounding regions, and document the current status of populations in Connecticut waters. An environmental history that assesses trends in abundance, environmental threats and historical efforts to ameliorate the threats will contribute to regional efforts to conserve these fish. Comprehensive review of the regional literature and trends associated with rainbow smelt has not been undertaken since Kendall (1926). Assessment of current abundance, distribution, areas of critical habitat, and whether the species is presently reproducing in state waters is critical for clarifying conservation status, designing a monitoring program and developing a recovery or enhancement plan, if this appears to be necessary. (beginning of tomcod executive summary) Atlantic tomcod (Microgadus tomcod) are believed to have declined significantly in Connecticut and other estuaries of the Northeast and Middle Atlantic states. Several monitoring programs indicate that the species is scarce and/or declining in the region’s estuaries (Gottschall and Pacileo 2004, Molnar 2004, Millstone Environmental Laboratory 2005, ASA Analysis and Communication 2005). Once-active recreational (NMFS MRFSS 2005, http://www.st.nmfs.gov) and commercial fisheries for this species in Connecticut are now dormant. For the past 10 years, the Connecticut Fish Advisory Committee of the Endangered Species Program has recommended that studies be undertaken to quantify the status of tomcod populations and to determine if conservation actions should be initiated. The purpose of this project is to develop an environmental history of Atlantic tomcod in Connecticut and surrounding regions, and document the current status of populations in Connecticut waters. An environmental history that assesses trends in abundance, environmental threats and historical efforts to ameliorate the threats will contribute to regional efforts to conserve these fish. Assessment of current abundance, distribution, areas of critical habitat, and whether the species is presently reproducing in state waters is critical for determining conservation status, designing a monitoring program and developing a recovery or enhancement plan, if this appears to be necessary.

Private Property, Public Use, and Just Compensation: The Economics of Eminent Domain

The eminent domain clause of the U.S. Constitution concerns the limits of the government's right to take private property for public use. The economic literature on this issue has examined (1) the proper scope of this power as embodied by the 'public use' requirement, (2) the appropriate definition, and implications, of 'just compensation,' and (3) the impact of eminent domain on land use incentives of owners whose land is subject to a taking risk. This essay reviews this literature and draws implications for our understanding of eminent domain law.

Public School Choice and Integration: Evidence from Durham, North Carolina

Using evidence from Durham, North Carolina, we examine the impact of school choice programs on racial and class-based segregation across schools. Theoretical considerations suggest that how choice programs affect segregation will depend not only on the family preferences emphasized in the sociology literature but also on the linkages between student composition, school quality and student achievement emphasized in the economics literature, and on the availability of schools of different types. Reasonable assumptions about how these factors differ for students of different races and socio-economic status suggest that the segregating choices of students from advantaged backgrounds are likely to outweigh any integrating choices by disadvantaged students. The results of our empirical analysis are consistent with these theoretical considerations. Using information on the actual schools students attend and on the schools in their assigned attendance zones, we find that schools in Durham are more segregated by race and class as a result of school choice programs than they would be if all students attended their geographically assigned schools. In addition, we find that the effects of choice on segregation by class are larger than the effects on segregation by race.

The association between mental health and cigarette smoking in active duty military members

Previous research has shown an association between mental health status and cigarette smoking. This study examined four specific mental health predictors and the outcome variable any smoking, defined as smoking one or more cigarettes in the past 30 days. The population included active duty military members serving in the United States Army, Air Force, Navy and Marine Corps. The data was collected during the 2005 Department of Defense Survey of Health Related Behaviors Among Active Duty Military Personnel, a component of the Defense Lifestyle Assessment Program. The sample size included 13,603 subjects. This cross sectional prevalence study consisted of descriptive statistics, univariate analysis, and multivariate logistic regression analysis of the four mental health predictors and the any smoking outcome variable. Multivariate adjustment showed an association between the four mental health predictors and any smoking. This association is consistent with previous literature and can help guide public health officials in the development of smoking prevention and cessation programs.^

A systematic review of literature on socioeconomic disparities in the prevalence of dental caries

Dental caries, also known as tooth decay, are a disease of the oral cavity that affects the tooth structure and leads to the occurrence of cavities in teeth. Dental caries are one of the leading chronic diseases in the population and are very common in childhood. If not treated appropriately, dental caries have debilitating effect on the oral and general health of individuals. ^ Objectives. The aims of this review are to (1) analyze and elucidate the relationship between the social and economic determinants of health like income, education and race/ethnicity and the prevalence of dental caries and (2) identify and understand the pathways/underlying causes through which these factors affect the occurrence of dental caries. This review will provide a foundation for formulation of better oral health policies in future by identifying the key socio-economic factors and pathways affecting the prevalence of dental caries. Knowledge about these socioeconomic factors could be incorporated in the design of future policies and interventions to achieve greater benefits.^ Methods. This review includes information from all pertinent articles, reviews, surveys, reports, peer reviewed literature and web sources that were published after 2000. The selection criterion includes literature focusing on individuals between the ages of 1 to 65 years, and individuals from different subgroups of community based on income, education and race/ethnicity. The analyses of literature include identifying if a relationship between income/education/race and the prevalence of dental caries exists by comparing the prevalence of dental caries in different socio-economic groups. Also included in this review are articles that are relevant to the mechanisms/pathways through which income/education/race affect the prevalence of dental caries.^ Results. Analyses of available literature suggests that disparities in the prevalence of dental caries may be attributed to differences in income, education and race/ethnicity. Higher prevalence of dental caries was observed in African-American and Mexican-American individuals, and in people with low income and low education. The leading pathways through which the socioeconomic factors affect the prevalence of dental caries are the lack of access to dental care, lack of awareness about good oral hygiene beliefs and habits, oral health, inability to afford dental care, lack of social support to maintain oral health and lack of dental insurance.^ Conclusion. Disparities in the prevalence of dental caries exist in various socio-economic groups. The relationship between socio-economic factors and dental caries prevalence should be considered in the development of future policies and interventions that are aimed at reducing the prevalence of dental caries and enhancing oral health status.^