The entry and clearance of Ca2+ at individual presynaptic active zones of hair cells from the bullfrog's sacculus.

Neurotransmitter is released when Ca2+ triggers the fusion of synaptic vesicles with the plasmalemma. To study factors that regulate Ca2+ concentration at the presynaptic active zones of hair cells, we used laser-scanning confocal microscopy with the fluorescent Ca2+ indicator fluo 3. The experimental results were compared with the predictions of a model of presynaptic Ca2+ concentration in which Ca2+ enters a cell through a point source, diffuses from the entry site, and binds to fixed or mobile Ca2+ buffers. The observed time course and magnitude of fluorescence changes under a variety of conditions were well fit when the model included mobile molecules as the only Ca2+ buffer. The results confirm the localized entry of Ca2+ underlying neurotransmitter release and suggest that Ca2+ is cleared from an active zone almost exclusively by mobile buffer.

Dual regulation of open-complex formation and promoter clearance by Arc explains a novel repressor to activator switch.

In studies of variants of the P(ant) promoter of bacteriophage P22, the Arc protein was found not only to slow the rate at which RNA polymerase forms open complexes but also to accelerate the rate at which the enzyme clears the promoter. These dual activities permit Arc, bound at a single operator subsite, to act as an activator or as a repressor of different promoter variants. For example, Arc activates a P(ant) variant for which promoter clearance is rate limiting in the presence and absence of Arc but represses a closely related variant for which open-complex formation becomes rate limiting in the presence of Arc. The acceleration of promoter clearance by Arc requires occupancy of the operator subsite proximal to the -35 region and is diminished when Arc bears a mutation in Arg-23, a residue that makes a DNA-backbone contact in the operator complex.

Characterization of a murine Ahr null allele: involvement of the Ah receptor in hepatic growth and development.

The Ah receptor (AHR) is a ligand-activated transcription factor that mediates a pleiotropic response to environmental contaminants such as benzo[a]pyrene and 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. In an effort to gain insight into the physiological role of the AHR and to develop models useful in risk assessment, gene targeting was used to inactivate the murine Ahr gene by homologous recombination. Ahr-/- mice are viable and fertile but show a spectrum of hepatic defects that indicate a role for the AHR in normal liver growth and development. The Ahr-/- phenotype is most severe between 0-3 weeks of age and involves slowed early growth and hepatic defects, including reduced liver weight, transient microvesicular fatty metamorphosis, prolonged extramedullary hematopoiesis, and portal hypercellularity with thickening and fibrosis.

Urokinase-type plasminogen activator is effective in fibrin clearance in the absence of its receptor or tissue-type plasminogen activator.

The availability of gene-targeted mice deficient in the urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA), urokinase receptor (uPAR), tissue-type plasminogen activator (tPA), and plasminogen permits a critical, genetic-based analysis of the physiological and pathological roles of the two mammalian plasminogen activators. We report a comparative study of animals with individual and combined deficits in uPAR and tPA and show that these proteins are complementary fibrinolytic factors in mice. Sinusoidal fibrin deposits are found within the livers of nearly all adult mice examined with a dual deficiency in uPAR and tPA, whereas fibrin deposits are never found in livers collected from animals lacking uPAR and rarely detected in animals lacking tPA alone. This is the first demonstration that uPAR has a physiological role in fibrinolysis. However, uPAR-/-/tPA-/- mice do not develop the pervasive, multi-organ fibrin deposits, severe tissue damage, reduced fertility, and high morbidity and mortality observed in mice with a combined deficiency in tPA and the uPAR ligand, uPA. Furthermore, uPAR-/-/tPA-/- mice do not exhibit the profound impairment in wound repair seen in uPA-/-/tPA-/- mice when they are challenged with a full-thickness skin incision. These results indicate that plasminogen activation focused at the cell surface by uPAR is important in fibrin surveillance in the liver, but that uPA supplies sufficient fibrinolytic potential to clear fibrin deposits from most tissues and support wound healing without the benefit of either uPAR or tPA.

Viral cross talk: intracellular inactivation of the hepatitis B virus during an unrelated viral infection of the liver.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is thought to be controlled by virus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL). We have recently shown that HBV-specific CTL can abolish HBV replication noncytopathically in the liver of transgenic mice by secreting tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) and interferon gamma (IFN-gamma) after antigen recognition. We now demonstrate that hepatocellular HBV replication is also abolished noncytopathically during lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) infection, and we show that this process is mediated by TNF-alpha and IFN-alpha/beta produced by LCMV-infected hepatic macrophages. These results confirm the ability of these inflammatory cytokines to abolish HBV replication; they elucidate the mechanism likely to be responsible for clearance of HBV in chronically infected patients who become superinfected by other hepatotropic viruses; they suggest that pharmacological activation of intrahepatic macrophages may have therapeutic value in chronic HBV infection; and they raise the possibility that conceptually similar events may be operative in other viral infections as well.

Eradication of human hepatic and pulmonary melanoma metastases in SCID mice by antibody-interleukin 2 fusion proteins.

Antibody-cytokine fusion proteins combine the unique targeting ability of antibodies with the multifunctional activity of cytokines. Here, we demonstrate the therapeutic efficacy of such constructs for the treatment of hepatic and pulmonary metastases of different melanoma cell lines. Two antibody-interleukin 2 (IL-2) fusion proteins, ch225-IL2 and ch14.18-IL2, constructed by fusion of a synthetic sequence coding for human IL-2 to the carboxyl end of the Cgamma1 gene of the corresponding antibodies, were tested for their therapeutic efficacy against xenografted human melanoma in vivo. Tumor-specific fusion proteins completely inhibited the growth of hepatic and pulmonary metastases in C.B-17 scid/scid mice previously reconstituted with human lymphokine-activated killer cells, whereas treatment with combinations of the corresponding antibodies plus recombinant IL-2 only reduced the tumor load. Even when treatment with fusion proteins was delayed up to 8 days after inoculation of tumor cells, it still resulted in complete eradication of micrometastases that were established at that time point. Selection of tumor cell lines expressing or lacking the targeted antigen of the administered fusion protein proved the specificity of the observed antitumor effect. Biodistribution analysis demonstrated that the tumor-specific fusion protein accumulated not only in subcutaneous tumors but also in lungs and livers affected with micrometastases. Survival times of animals treated with the fusion protein were more than doubled as compared to those treated with the combination of the corresponding antibody plus IL-2. Our data demonstrate that an immunotherapeutic approach using cytokines targeted by antibodies to tumor sites has potent effects against disseminated human melanoma.

Posttranscriptional clearance of hepatitis B virus RNA by cytotoxic T lymphocyte-activated hepatocytes.

Using transgenic mice that replicate the hepatitis B virus (HBV) genome, we recently demonstrated that class I-restricted, hepatitis B surface antigen-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) can noncytolytically eliminate HBV pregenomic and envelope RNA transcripts from the hepatocyte. We now demonstrate that the steady-state content of these viral transcripts is profoundly reduced in the nucleus and cytoplasm of CTL-activated hepatocytes, but their transcription rates are only slightly reduced. Additionally, we demonstrate that transcripts covering the HBV X coding region are resistant to downregulation by the CTL. These results imply the existence of CTL-inducible hepatocellular factors that interact with a discrete element(s) between nucleotides 3157 and 1239 within the viral pregenomic and envelope transcripts and mediate their degradation, thus converting the hepatocyte from a passive victim to an active participant in the host response to HBV infection.

Evidence for incorporation of intact dietary pyrimidine (but not purine) nucleosides into hepatic RNA.

The absorption and metabolism of dietary nucleic acids have received less attention than those of other organic nutrients, largely because of methodological difficulties. We supplemented the rations of poultry and mice with the edible alga Spirulina platensis, which had been uniformly labeled with 13C by hydroponic culture in 13CO2. The rations were ingested by a hen for 4 wk and by four mice for 6 days; two mice were fed a normal diet and two were fed a nucleic acid-deficient diet. The animals were killed and nucleosides were isolated from hepatic RNA. The isotopic enrichment of all mass isotopomers of the nucleosides was analyzed by selected ion monitoring of the negative chemical ionization mass spectrum and the labeling pattern was deconvoluted by reference to the enrichment pattern of the tracer material. We found a distinct difference in the 13C enrichment pattern between pyrimidine and purine nucleosides; the isotopic enrichment of uniformly labeled [M + 9] isotopomers of pyrimidines exceeded that of purines [M + 10] by > 2 orders of magnitude in the avian nucleic acids and by 7- and 14-fold in the murine nucleic acids. The purines were more enriched in lower mass isotopomers, those less than [M + 3], than the pyrimidines. Our results suggest that large quantities of dietary pyrimidine nucleosides and almost no dietary purine nucleosides are incorporated into hepatic nucleic acids without hydrolytic removal of the ribose moiety. In addition, our results support a potential nutritional role for nucleosides and suggest that pyrimidines are conditionally essential organic nutrients.

Subunit-specific functions of N-linked oligosaccharides in human thyrotropin: role of terminal residues of alpha- and beta-subunit oligosaccharides in metabolic clearance and bioactivity.

The recombinant human thyroid stimulating hormone (rhTSH) containing oligosaccharides terminated with NeuAc(alpha 2-3)Gal(beta 1-4)GlcNAc beta 1 showed higher in vivo activity and lower metabolic clearance rate (MCR) than pituitary human TSH (phTSH), which contains oligosaccharides terminating predominantly in SO(4)4GalNAc(beta 1-4)GlcNAc beta 1. To elucidate the relative contribution of the sulfated and sialylated carbohydrate chains of each subunit in the MCR and bioactivity of the hormone, the alpha and beta subunits of phTSH, rhTSH, and enzymatically desialylated rhTSH (asialo-rhTSH; asrhTSH) were isolated, their oligosaccharides were analyzed, and the respective subunits were dimerized in various combinations. The hybrids containing alpha subunit from phTSH or asrhTSH showed higher in vitro activity than those with alpha subunit from rhTSH, indicating that sialylation of alpha but not beta subunit attenuates the intrinsic activity of TSH. In contrast, hybrids with beta subunit from rhTSH displayed lower MCR compared to those with beta subunit from phTSH. The phTSH alpha-rhTSH beta hybrid had the highest in vivo bioactivity followed by rhTSH alpha-rhTSH beta, rhTSH alpha-phTSH beta, phTSH alpha-phTSH beta, and asrhTSH dimers. These differences indicated that hybrids with beta subunit from rhTSH displayed the highest in vivo activity and relatively low MCR, probably due to higher sialylation, more multiantennary structure, and/or the unique location of the beta-subunit oligosaccharide chain in the molecule. Thus, the N-linked oligosaccharides of the beta subunit of glycoprotein hormones have a more pronounced role than those from the alpha subunit in the metabolic clearance and thereby in the in vivo bioactivity. In contrast, the terminal residues of alpha-subunit oligosaccharides have a major impact on TSH intrinsic potency.

Initial hepatic removal of chylomicron remnants is unaffected but endocytosis is delayed in mice lacking the low density lipoprotein receptor.

Two endocytic receptors, the low density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor (LDLR) and the LDLR-related protein (LRP), are thought to act in concert in the hepatic uptake of partially metabolized dietary lipoproteins, the chylomicron remnants. We have evaluated the role of these two receptors in the hepatic metabolism of chylomicron remnants in normal mice and in LDLR-deficient [LDLR (-/-)] mice. The rate of chylomicron remnant removal by the liver was normal up to 30 min after intravenous injection of chylomicrons into LDLR (-/-) mice and was unaffected by receptor-associated protein (RAP), a potent inhibitor of ligand binding to LRP. In contrast, endocytosis of the remnants by the hepatocytes, measured by their accumulation in the endosomal fraction and by the rate of hydrolysis of component cholesteryl esters, was dramatically reduced in the absence of the LDLR. Coadministration of RAP prevented the continuing hepatic removal of chylomicron remnants in LDL (-/-) mice after 30 min, consistent with blockade of the slow endocytosis by a RAP-sensitive process. Taken together with previous studies, our results are consistent with a model in which the initial hepatic removal of chylomicron remnants is primarily mediated by mechanisms that do not include LDLR or LRP, possibly involving glycosaminoglycan-bound hepatic lipase and apolipoprotein E. After the remnants bind to these alternative sites on the hepatocyte surface, endocytosis is predominantly mediated by the LDLR and also by a slower and less efficient backup process that is RAP sensitive and therefore most likely involves LRP.

Maintenance of protective immunity against malaria by persistent hepatic parasites derived from irradiated sporozoites.

Immunization of rodents and humans with irradiation-attenuated malaria sporozoites confers preerythrocytic stage-specific protective immunity to challenge infection. This immunity is directed against intrahepatic parasites and involves T cells and interferon gamma, which prevent development of exoerythrocytic stages and subsequent blood infection. The present study was undertaken to determine how protective immunity is achieved after immunization of rodent hosts with irradiated Plasmodium berghei sporozoites. We present evidence that irradiated parasites persist in hepatocytes of rats and mice for up to 6 months after immunization. A relationship between the persistence of parasites and the maintenance of protective immunity was observed. Protective immunity was abrogated in irradiated-sporozoite-immunized rats following the application of chemotherapy to remove preexisting liver parasites. Additionally, protective immunity against sporozoite challenge was established in rats vaccinated with early and late hepatic stages of irradiated parasites. These results show that irradiation-attenuated sporozoites produce persistent intrahepatic stages in vivo necessary for the induction and maintenance of protective immunity.

Gene therapy for diabetes mellitus in rats by hepatic expression of insulin.

Type 1 diabetes mellitus is caused by severe insulin deficiency secondary to the autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells. Patients need to be controlled by periodic insulin injections to prevent the development of ketoacidosis, which can be fatal. Sustained, low-level expression of the rat insulin 1 gene from the liver of severely diabetic rats was achieved by in vivo administration of a recombinant retroviral vector. Ketoacidosis was prevented and the treated animals exhibited normoglycemia during a 24-hr fast, with no evidence of hypoglycemia. Histopathological examination of the liver in the treated animals showed no apparent abnormalities. Thus, the liver is an excellent target organ for ectopic expression of the insulin gene as a potential treatment modality for type 1 diabetes mellitus by gene therapy.

Hepatic expression of mature transforming growth factor beta 1 in transgenic mice results in multiple tissue lesions.

Aberrant expression of transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-beta 1) has been implicated in a number of disease processes, particularly those involving fibrotic and inflammatory lesions. To determine the in vivo effects of overexpression of TGF-beta 1 on the function and structure of hepatic as well as extrahepatic tissues, transgenic mice were generated containing a fusion gene (Alb/TGF-beta 1) consisting of modified porcine TGF-beta 1 cDNA under the control of the regulatory elements of the mouse albumin gene. Five transgenic lines were developed, all of which expressed the Alb/TGF-beta 1 transgene selectively in hepatocytes. The transgenic line 25 expressing the highest level of the transgene in the liver also had high (> 10-fold over control) plasma levels of TGF-beta 1. Hepatic fibrosis and apoptotic death of hepatocytes developed in all the transgenic lines but was more pronounced in line 25. The fibrotic process was characterized by deposition of collagen around individual hepatocytes and within the space of Disse in a radiating linear pattern. Several extrahepatic lesions developed in line 25, including glomerulonephritis and renal failure, arteritis and myocarditis, as well as atrophic changes in pancreas and testis. The results from this transgenic model strongly support the proposed etiological role for TGF-beta 1 in a variety of fibrotic and inflammatory disorders. The transgenic model may also provide an appropriate paradigm for testing therapeutic interventions aimed at neutralizing the detrimental effects of this important cytokine.

Estresse oxidativo em porfiria hepática experimental disparada por succinilacetona - um inibidor da ácido 5-aminolevulínico desidratase

Para otimizar um modelo experimental para o estudo do desbalanço redox em porfirias relacionadas ao acúmulo de ácido 5-aminolevulínico-(ALA), via inibição da ALA desidratase-(ALA-D), ratos foram tratados com o éster metílico de succinilacetona-(SAME), um catabólito da tirosina que inibe fortemente a ALA-O, mimetízando o estado metabólico observado nos portadores de portirias e tirosinemias. Estabeleceram-se modelos de tratamento agudo por 36 e 18 h. No primeiro, os animais receberam 3 injeções de SAME (10, 40 ou 80 mg/kg, grupos Ali-IV). No segundo, os animais receberam 3 injeções de 40 mg/kg de SAME, ALA ou éster metílico de ALA (grupos BII-IV), ALA:SAME (30: 10 mg/kg, grupo BV), ou 10 mg/kg SAME (grupo BVI). Paralelamente, avaliou-se se os sintomas neurológicos característicos das portirias decorriam de danos oxidativos mitocondriais. Para isso, aplicou-se uma tecnologia óptica para medidas da difusão da depressão cortical que determinou a oxigenação e o estado redox do cit c em mitocôndrias do córtex cerebral de ratos submetidos ao tratamento crônico com ALA (40 mg/kg), SAME (10 e 40 mg/kg) e ALA:SAME (30: 1O mg/kg), a cada 48 h, durante 30 dias. Tratamento agudo/36 h: Os níveis de ALA no plasma, fígado, cérebro e urina e o clearance renal do ALA aumentaram nos grupos tratados. A atividade de ALA-D e a coproporfirina urinária reduziram. A marcação para proteínas carboniladas, ferro e ferritina aumentou no fígado e cérebro dos grupos tratados, especialmente no All. Os níveis de malondialdeído hepático aumentaram no grupo AIV. A razão GSH/GSH+GSSG e a atividade de GPx cerebrais aumentaram nos grupos AIV e AIII, respectivamente. Consistentemente com estes dados indicando um desbalanço oxidativo induzido pelo SAME, alterações mitocondriais e citosólicas ultraestruturais foram reveladas, especialmente no fígado. Tratamento agudo/18 h: Os níveis de ALA plasmáticos aumentaram nos grupos tratados, exceto em BIV. O grupo BII mostrou aumento dos níveis hepáticos de ALA. Interessantemente, a inibição da atividade de ALA-D não foi evidenciada. O conteúdo de ferro plasmático aumentou no grupo BII. Para os grupos tratados com 10 e 40 mg SAME/kg, a atividade de SOD hepática reduziu ~50% com a extensão do tratamento de 18 para 36 h, sugerindo que este último é mais efetivo em promover danos oxidativos induzidos pelo ALA. Tratamento crônico/30 dias: Embora nenhuma alteração tenha sido evidenciada no estado redox dos animais tratados, o tratamento com ALA reduziu o fluxo sanguíneo cerebral (CBF) e o consumo de oxigênio-(CMRO2), sugerindo uma vasoconstrição mediada pelo ALA, efeito este confirmado por ensaios de reatividade vascular conduzidos em anéis de aorta de ratos incubados com ALA. O tratamento com ALA:SAME restaurou os níveis de CBF e CMRO2. Interessantemente, a disponibilidade do radical superóxido-(O2•-) estava reduzida nos anéis de aorta incubados com ALA. Juntos, estes dados: a)validam o modelo de tratamento agudo/36 h para o estudo bioquímico e dos possíveis efeitos fisiológicos induzidos pelo ALA, e b)sugerem que as alterações mediadas pelo ALA exógeno levam à vasoconstrição.