Shallow and deep deformation in northern Apennines region using seismological data

For its particular position and the complex geological history, the Northern Apennines has been considered as a natural laboratory to apply several kinds of investigations. By the way, it is complicated to joint all the knowledge about the Northern Apennines in a unique picture that explains the structural and geological emplacement that produced it. The main goal of this thesis is to put together all information on the deformation - in the crust and at depth - of this region and to describe a geodynamical model that takes account of it. To do so, we have analyzed the pattern of deformation in the crust and in the mantle. In both cases the deformation has been studied using always information recovered from earthquakes, although using different techniques. In particular the shallower deformation has been studied using seismic moment tensors information. For our purpose we used the methods described in Arvidsson and Ekstrom (1998) that allowing the use in the inversion of surface waves [and not only of the body waves as the Centroid Moment Tensor (Dziewonski et al., 1981) one] allow to determine seismic source parameters for earthquakes with magnitude as small as 4.0. We applied this tool in the Northern Apennines and through this activity we have built up the Italian CMT dataset (Pondrelli et al., 2006) and the pattern of seismic deformation using the Kostrov (1974) method on a regular grid of 0.25 degree cells. We obtained a map of lateral variations of the pattern of seismic deformation on different layers of depth, taking into account the fact that shallow earthquakes (within 15 km of depth) in the region occur everywhere while most of events with a deeper hypocenter (15-40 km) occur only in the outer part of the belt, on the Adriatic side. For the analysis of the deep deformation, i.e. that occurred in the mantle, we used the anisotropy information characterizing the structure below the Northern Apennines. The anisotropy is an earth properties that in the crust is due to the presence of aligned fluid filled cracks or alternating isotropic layers with different elastic properties while in the mantle the most important cause of seismic anisotropy is the lattice preferred orientation (LPO) of the mantle minerals as the olivine. This last is a highly anisotropic mineral and tends to align its fast crystallographic axes (a-axis) parallel to the astenospheric flow as a response to finite strain induced by geodynamic processes. The seismic anisotropy pattern of a region is measured utilizing the shear wave splitting phenomenon (that is the seismological analogue to optical birefringence). Here, to do so, we apply on teleseismic earthquakes recorded on stations located in the study region, the Sileny and Plomerova (1996) approach. The results are analyzed on the basis of their lateral and vertical variations to better define the earth structure beneath Northern Apennines. We find different anisotropic domains, a Tuscany and an Adria one, with a pattern of seismic anisotropy which laterally varies in a similar way respect to the seismic deformation. Moreover, beneath the Adriatic region the distribution of the splitting parameters is so complex to request an appropriate analysis. Therefore we applied on our data the code of Menke and Levin (2003) which allows to look for different models of structures with multilayer anisotropy. We obtained that the structure beneath the Po Plain is probably even more complicated than expected. On the basis of the results obtained for this thesis, added with those from previous works, we suggest that slab roll-back, which created the Apennines and opened the Tyrrhenian Sea, evolved in the north boundary of Northern Apennines in a different way from its southern part. In particular, the trench retreat developed primarily south of our study region, with an eastward roll-back. In the northern portion of the orogen, after a first stage during which the retreat was perpendicular to the trench, it became oblique with respect to the structure.

Estimating crustal deformation from geodetic data

By the end of the 19th century, geodesy has contributed greatly to the knowledge of regional tectonics and fault movement through its ability to measure, at sub-centimetre precision, the relative positions of points on the Earth’s surface. Nowadays the systematic analysis of geodetic measurements in active deformation regions represents therefore one of the most important tool in the study of crustal deformation over different temporal scales [e.g., Dixon, 1991]. This dissertation focuses on motion that can be observed geodetically with classical terrestrial position measurements, particularly triangulation and leveling observations. The work is divided into two sections: an overview of the principal methods for estimating longterm accumulation of elastic strain from terrestrial observations, and an overview of the principal methods for rigorously inverting surface coseismic deformation fields for source geometry with tests on synthetic deformation data sets and applications in two different tectonically active regions of the Italian peninsula. For the long-term accumulation of elastic strain analysis, triangulation data were available from a geodetic network across the Messina Straits area (southern Italy) for the period 1971 – 2004. From resulting angle changes, the shear strain rates as well as the orientation of the principal axes of the strain rate tensor were estimated. The computed average annual shear strain rates for the time period between 1971 and 2004 are γ˙1 = 113.89 ± 54.96 nanostrain/yr and γ˙2 = -23.38 ± 48.71 nanostrain/yr, with the orientation of the most extensional strain (θ) at N140.80° ± 19.55°E. These results suggests that the first-order strain field of the area is dominated by extension in the direction perpendicular to the trend of the Straits, sustaining the hypothesis that the Messina Straits could represents an area of active concentrated deformation. The orientation of θ agree well with GPS deformation estimates, calculated over shorter time interval, and is consistent with previous preliminary GPS estimates [D’Agostino and Selvaggi, 2004; Serpelloni et al., 2005] and is also similar to the direction of the 1908 (MW 7.1) earthquake slip vector [e.g., Boschi et al., 1989; Valensise and Pantosti, 1992; Pino et al., 2000; Amoruso et al., 2002]. Thus, the measured strain rate can be attributed to an active extension across the Messina Straits, corresponding to a relative extension rate ranges between < 1mm/yr and up to ~ 2 mm/yr, within the portion of the Straits covered by the triangulation network. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that the Messina Straits is an important active geological boundary between the Sicilian and the Calabrian domains and support previous preliminary GPS-based estimates of strain rates across the Straits, which show that the active deformation is distributed along a greater area. Finally, the preliminary dislocation modelling has shown that, although the current geodetic measurements do not resolve the geometry of the dislocation models, they solve well the rate of interseismic strain accumulation across the Messina Straits and give useful information about the locking the depth of the shear zone. Geodetic data, triangulation and leveling measurements of the 1976 Friuli (NE Italy) earthquake, were available for the inversion of coseismic source parameters. From observed angle and elevation changes, the source parameters of the seismic sequence were estimated in a join inversion using an algorithm called “simulated annealing”. The computed optimal uniform–slip elastic dislocation model consists of a 30° north-dipping shallow (depth 1.30 ± 0.75 km) fault plane with azimuth of 273° and accommodating reverse dextral slip of about 1.8 m. The hypocentral location and inferred fault plane of the main event are then consistent with the activation of Periadriatic overthrusts or other related thrust faults as the Gemona- Kobarid thrust. Then, the geodetic data set exclude the source solution of Aoudia et al. [2000], Peruzza et al. [2002] and Poli et al. [2002] that considers the Susans-Tricesimo thrust as the May 6 event. The best-fit source model is then more consistent with the solution of Pondrelli et al. [2001], which proposed the activation of other thrusts located more to the North of the Susans-Tricesimo thrust, probably on Periadriatic related thrust faults. The main characteristics of the leveling and triangulation data are then fit by the optimal single fault model, that is, these results are consistent with a first-order rupture process characterized by a progressive rupture of a single fault system. A single uniform-slip fault model seems to not reproduce some minor complexities of the observations, and some residual signals that are not modelled by the optimal single-fault plane solution, were observed. In fact, the single fault plane model does not reproduce some minor features of the leveling deformation field along the route 36 south of the main uplift peak, that is, a second fault seems to be necessary to reproduce these residual signals. By assuming movements along some mapped thrust located southward of the inferred optimal single-plane solution, the residual signal has been successfully modelled. In summary, the inversion results presented in this Thesis, are consistent with the activation of some Periadriatic related thrust for the main events of the sequence, and with a minor importance of the southward thrust systems of the middle Tagliamento plain.

Numerical simulations of magma chamber dynamics at Campi Flegrei, and associated seismicity, deformation and gravity changes

Understanding the complex relationships between quantities measured by volcanic monitoring network and shallow magma processes is a crucial headway for the comprehension of volcanic processes and a more realistic evaluation of the associated hazard. This question is very relevant at Campi Flegrei, a volcanic quiescent caldera immediately north-west of Napoli (Italy). The system activity shows a high fumarole release and periodic ground slow movement (bradyseism) with high seismicity. This activity, with the high people density and the presence of military and industrial buildings, makes Campi Flegrei one of the areas with higher volcanic hazard in the world. In such a context my thesis has been focused on magma dynamics due to the refilling of shallow magma chambers, and on the geophysical signals detectable by seismic, deformative and gravimetric monitoring networks that are associated with this phenomenologies. Indeed, the refilling of magma chambers is a process frequently occurring just before a volcanic eruption; therefore, the faculty of identifying this dynamics by means of recorded signal analysis is important to evaluate the short term volcanic hazard. The space-time evolution of dynamics due to injection of new magma in the magma chamber has been studied performing numerical simulations with, and implementing additional features in, the code GALES (Longo et al., 2006), recently developed and still on the upgrade at the Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia in Pisa (Italy). GALES is a finite element code based on a physico-mathematical two dimensional, transient model able to treat fluids as multiphase homogeneous mixtures, compressible to incompressible. The fundamental equations of mass, momentum and energy balance are discretised both in time and space using the Galerkin Least-Squares and discontinuity-capturing stabilisation technique. The physical properties of the mixture are computed as a function of local conditions of magma composition, pressure and temperature.The model features enable to study a broad range of phenomenologies characterizing pre and sin-eruptive magma dynamics in a wide domain from the volcanic crater to deep magma feeding zones. The study of displacement field associated with the simulated fluid dynamics has been carried out with a numerical code developed by the Geophysical group at the University College Dublin (O’Brien and Bean, 2004b), with whom we started a very profitable collaboration. In this code, the seismic wave propagation in heterogeneous media with free surface (e.g. the Earth’s surface) is simulated using a discrete elastic lattice where particle interactions are controlled by the Hooke’s law. This method allows to consider medium heterogeneities and complex topography. The initial and boundary conditions for the simulations have been defined within a coordinate project (INGV-DPC 2004-06 V3_2 “Research on active volcanoes, precursors, scenarios, hazard and risk - Campi Flegrei”), to which this thesis contributes, and many researchers experienced on Campi Flegrei in volcanological, seismic, petrological, geochemical fields, etc. collaborate. Numerical simulations of magma and rock dynamis have been coupled as described in the thesis. The first part of the thesis consists of a parametric study aimed at understanding the eect of the presence in magma of carbon dioxide in magma in the convection dynamics. Indeed, the presence of this volatile was relevant in many Campi Flegrei eruptions, including some eruptions commonly considered as reference for a future activity of this volcano. A set of simulations considering an elliptical magma chamber, compositionally uniform, refilled from below by a magma with volatile content equal or dierent from that of the resident magma has been performed. To do this, a multicomponent non-ideal magma saturation model (Papale et al., 2006) that considers the simultaneous presence of CO2 and H2O, has been implemented in GALES. Results show that the presence of CO2 in the incoming magma increases its buoyancy force promoting convection ad mixing. The simulated dynamics produce pressure transients with frequency and amplitude in the sensitivity range of modern geophysical monitoring networks such as the one installed at Campi Flegrei . In the second part, simulations more related with the Campi Flegrei volcanic system have been performed. The simulated system has been defined on the basis of conditions consistent with the bulk of knowledge of Campi Flegrei and in particular of the Agnano-Monte Spina eruption (4100 B.P.), commonly considered as reference for a future high intensity eruption in this area. The magmatic system has been modelled as a long dyke refilling a small shallow magma chamber; magmas with trachytic and phonolitic composition and variable volatile content of H2O and CO2 have been considered. The simulations have been carried out changing the condition of magma injection, the system configuration (magma chamber geometry, dyke size) and the resident and refilling magma composition and volatile content, in order to study the influence of these factors on the simulated dynamics. Simulation results allow to follow each step of the gas-rich magma ascent in the denser magma, highlighting the details of magma convection and mixing. In particular, the presence of more CO2 in the deep magma results in more ecient and faster dynamics. Through this simulations the variation of the gravimetric field has been determined. Afterward, the space-time distribution of stress resulting from numerical simulations have been used as boundary conditions for the simulations of the displacement field imposed by the magmatic dynamics on rocks. The properties of the simulated domain (rock density, P and S wave velocities) have been based on data from literature on active and passive tomographic experiments, obtained through a collaboration with A. Zollo at the Dept. of Physics of the Federici II Univeristy in Napoli. The elasto-dynamics simulations allow to determine the variations of the space-time distribution of deformation and the seismic signal associated with the studied magmatic dynamics. In particular, results show that these dynamics induce deformations similar to those measured at Campi Flegrei and seismic signals with energies concentrated on the typical frequency bands observed in volcanic areas. The present work shows that an approach based on the solution of equations describing the physics of processes within a magmatic fluid and the surrounding rock system is able to recognise and describe the relationships between geophysical signals detectable on the surface and deep magma dynamics. Therefore, the results suggest that the combined study of geophysical data and informations from numerical simulations can allow in a near future a more ecient evaluation of the short term volcanic hazard.

Laboratory verification of predicted permanent deformation in asphalt materials following climate change.

In the past a change in temperature of 5°C most often occurred over intervals of thousands of years. According to estimates by the IPCC, in the XXI century is expected an increase in average temperatures in Europe between 1.8 and 4.0°C in the best case caused by emissions of carbon dioxide and other GHG from human activities. As well as on the environment and economic context, global warming will have effects even on road safety. Several studies have already shown how increasing temperature may cause a worsening of some types of road surface damages, especially rutting, a permanent deformation of the road structures consisting in the formation of a longitudinal depression in the wheelpath, mostly due to the rheological behavior of bitumen. This deformation evolves during the hot season because of the heating capacity of the asphalt layers, in fact, the road surface temperature is up to 24°C higher than air. In this thesis, through the use of Wheeltrack test, it was studied the behavior of some types of asphalt concrete mixtures subjected to fatigue testing at different temperatures. The objectives of this study are: to determine the strain variation of different bituminous mixture subjected to fatigue testing at different temperature conditions; to investigate the effect of aggregates, bitumen and mixtures’ characteristics on rutting. Samples were made in the laboratory mostly using an already prepared mixtures, the others preparing the asphalt concrete from the grading curve and bitumen content. The same procedure was performed for each specimen: preparation, compaction using the roller compactor, cooling and heating before the test. The tests were carried out at 40 - 50 - 60°C in order to obtain the evolution of deformation with temperature variation, except some mixtures for which the tests were carried out only at 50°C. In the elaboration of the results were considered testing parameters, component properties and the characteristics of the mixture. Among the testing parameters, temperature was varied for each sample. The mixtures responded to this variation with a different behavior (linear logarithmic and exponential) not directly correlated with the asphalt characteristics; the others parameters as load, passage frequency and test condition were kept constant. According to the results obtained, the main contribution to deformation is due to the type of binder used, it was found that the modified bitumen have a better response than the same mixtures containing traditional bitumen; to the porosity which affects negatively the behavior of the samples and to the homogeneity ceteris paribus. The granulometric composition did not seem to have interfered with the results. Overall has emerged at working temperature, a decisive importance of bitumen composition, than the other characteristics of the mixture, that tends to disappear with heating in favor of increased dependence of rutting resistance from the granulometric composition of the sample considered. In particular it is essential, rather than the mechanical characteristics of the binder, its chemical properties given by the polymeric modification. To confirm some considered results, the maximum bulk density and the air voids content were determined. Tests have been conducted in the laboratories of the Civil Engineering Department at NTNU in Trondheim according to European Standards.

Transkriptionelle Regulation des humanen Interferon-gamma-Promotors in T-Lymphocyten

Interferon-gamma is mainly produced by activated T helper cells and cytotoxic T lymphocytes and sustains the immune-defense against viral and bacterial infections. For a better understanding of IFN-gamma promoter regulation in T cells, different DNA-binding motivs were examined. Hereby, a new motiv (-196 to -183) was identified, that binds to the transcription factor AP-1 in T helper cells and Jurkat T cells. This factor acts as an essential activator protein. Further investigation demonstrated that IL-12 and IL-18 induce different regulatory pathways. Both AP-1 and STAT-4 bindings at their cognate DNA elements (-196 to -183 and -224 to -215) are required for the IL-12 dependent activation whereas IL-18 causes direct activation via AP-1.Moreover, the TH2 cytokine IL-4 represses significantly the IFN-gamma promoter activity in CD4+ T cells. IL-4 induces GATA-3, that interacts with two DNA-motivs (-111 to -87) at the IFN-gamma promoter.Furthermore, transgenic mice were generated, yielding a human IFN-gamma promoter construct (410 bp) under the control of a luciferase reporter gene. The data demonstrated a specific IFN-gamma promoter activation by antiCD3 plus antiCD28 in CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. The luciferase activty in CD4+ T cells was reinforced by addition of IL-12 and IL-18 and repressed by IL-4.

Shape fabric development during progressive deformation

Zusammenfassung:Das Ziel dieser Arbeit ist ein besseres Verständnis von der Art und Weise wie sich Formregelungsgefüge entwicklen. Auf dieser Basis wird der Nutzen von Formregelungsgefügen für die Geologie evaluiert. Untersuchungsmethoden sind Geländearbeit und -auswertung, numerische Simulationen und Analogexperimente. Untersuchungen an Formregelungsgefügen in Gesteinen zeigen, daß ein Formregelungsgefüge nur zu einem begrenzten Grad als Anzeiger für die Stärke der Verformung benutzt werden kann. Der angenommene Grund hierfür ist der Einfluß des Verhältnisses von ursprünglicher zu rekristallisierter Korngröße auf die Gefügeentwicklung und von der Art und Weise wie dynamische Rekristallisation ein Gefüge verändert. Um diese Beobachtung zu evaluieren, wurden verschiedene numerische Simulationen von dynamischer Rekristallisation durchgeführt. Ein neuer Deformationsapparat, mit dem generelle Fließregime modelliert werden können, wurde entwickelt. Die rheologischen Eigenschaften von Materialien, die für solche Experimente benutzt werden, wurden untersucht und diskutiert. Ergebnisse von Analogexperimenten zeigen, daß die Intensität eines Formregelungsgefüges positiv mit der Abnahme der 'kinematic vorticity number' und einem nicht-Newtonianischen, 'power law' Verhalten des Materixmaterials korreliert ist. Experimente, in denen die Formveränderung von viskosen Einschlüssen während der progressiven Verformung modelliert werden, zeigen, daß verschiedene Viskositätskontraste zwischen Matrix- und Einschlußmaterial in charakteristische Formgefüge resultieren.

Erste Untersuchungen zur Messung helizitätsabhängiger (gamma N)-Wirkungsquerschnitte für das GDH-Experiment am MAMI

Das experimentelle Studium der 1966 von Gerasimov, Drell undHearn unabhängig voneinander aufgestellten und als GDH-SummenregelbezeichnetenRelation macht die Vermessung totalerPhotoabsorptionswirkungsquerschnitte von zirkular polarisierten Photonen an longitudinalpolarisierten Nukleonen über einen weiten Energiebereich notwendig. Die im Sommer1998 erfolgte Messung am Mainzer Mikrotron stellt das erste derartigeExperiment mit reellen Photonen zur Messung des GDH-Integrals am Protondar. Die Verwendung eines Frozen-Spin-Butanoltargets, das eingesetzt wurde, umeinen möglichst hohen Proton-Polarisationsgrad zu erreichen, hat diezusätzliche experimentelle Schwierigkeit zur Folge, daß die imButanoltarget enthaltenen Kohlenstoffkerne ebenfalls Reaktionsprodukte liefern, diezusammen mit den am Proton erzeugten nachgewiesen werden.Ziel der Arbeit war die Bestimmung von Wirkungsquerschnittenam freien Proton aus Messungen an einem komplexen Target (CH2) wie esbeim polarisiertenTarget vorliegt. Die hierzu durchgeführten Pilotexperimentedienten neben der Entwicklung von Methoden zur Reaktionsidentifikation auchder Eichung des Detektorsystems. Durch die Reproduktion der schon bekanntenund vermessenen unpolarisierten differentiellen und totalenEin-Pion-Wirkungsquerschnitte am Proton (gamma p -> p pi0 und gamma p -> n pi+), die bis zueiner Photonenergievon etwa 400 MeV den Hauptbeitrag zum GDH-Integralausmachen, konnte gezeigt werden, daß eine Separation der Wasserstoff- vonKohlenstoffereignissen möglich ist. Die notwendigen Techniken hierzu wurden imRahmen dieser Arbeit zu einem allgemein nutzbaren Werkzeug entwickelt.Weiterhin konnte gezeigt werden, daß der vom Kohlenstoffstammende Anteil der Reaktionen keine Helizitätsabhängigkeit besitzt. Unterdieser Voraussetzung reduziert sich die Bestimmung der helizitätsabhängigenWirkungsquerschnittsdifferenz auf eine einfacheDifferenzbildung. Aus den erhaltenen Ergebnissen der intensiven Analyse von Daten, diemit einem unpolarisierten Target erhalten wurden, konnten so schnellerste Resultate für Messungen, die mit dem polarisierten Frozen-Spin-Targetaufgenommen wurden, geliefert werden. Es zeigt sich, daß sich dieseersten Resultate für polarisierte differentielle und totale (gammaN)-Wirkungsquerschnitte im Delta-Bereich in guter Übereinstimmung mit theoretischenAnalysen befinden.

Photoproduktion neutraler Pionen am Proton mit linear polarisierten Photonen im Bereich der Delta(1232)-Resonanz

Hinweise auf die innere Struktur des Nukleons, dessenbeobachtbares Quadrupolmoment verschwindet, lassen sich u.a.durch die Untersuchung des N->Delta(1232)-Übergangsgewinnen. Dieser wird von der magnetischen Dipolanregung M1- einem Spinflip-Übergang - dominiert. In der Reaktion (gamma(lin. pol.) p -> p pi0) gelingt es mittels der Photonasymmetrie Sigma, das Signal der kleinen elektrischen Quadrupolamplitude E2 in einem Interferenztermmit der M1-Amplitude zu verstärken und das VerhältnisREM=E2/M1 des betrachteten Übergangs zu bestimmen. DieE2-Amplitude des N->Delta-Übergangs läßt auf eineDeformation des Nukleons und/oder der Delta-Resonanzschließen. Das zugehörige Experiment wurde am MainzerElektronenbeschleuniger MAMI durchgeführt. Durch kohärenteBremsstrahlung der Elektronen an einem Diamantradiatorstanden im Bereich der Delta(1232)-Resonanz linear polarisierte Photonen zur Verfügung. Insgesamt wurden reellePhotonen im Bereich Egamma=(200-790) MeV von derA2-Photonenmarkierungsanlage (Glasgow--Tagger)energiemarkiert. Mit dem Photonenspektrometer TAPS wurden die pi0-Mesonen über ihre beiden Zerfallsphotonennachgewiesen. Die gewählte Anordnung der 504BaF2-Einzelkristalle um ein Flüssigwasserstofftargeterlaubte den pi0-Nachweis im vollen Polarwinkelbereich. Die Datenbasis zur pi0-Photoproduktion am Proton konntehinsichtlich der Wirkungsquerschnitte und Photonasymmetriendurch Datenpunkte über den gesamten Polarwinkelbereichhinweg nachdrücklich erweitert werden.Eine weiterführende Multipolanalyse der neuen(Proton-pi0)-Daten ermöglichte im Energiebereich derDelta-Resonanz die Bestimmung der s- und p-WellenIsospinamplituden von E0+, M1-, E1+ und M1+.

Messung des Verzweigungsverhältnisses des seltenen Zerfalls Ks -> gamma gamma mit dem NA48-Detektor

Die Daten, die im Jahr 2000 mit dem NA48-Detektoraufgenommen wurden,werden in dieser Arbeit dazuverwendet, das Verzweigungsverhältnis des ZerfallsK_s -> gamma gamma zu bestimmen.Zur Reduktion der Unsicherheit auf diese Messungwurde ausserdem das Verhältnis der Zerfallsbreitender Zerfälle K_l -> gamma gamma undK_l -> 3 pi^0:Gamma(K_l -> gamma gamma)/Gamma(K_l -> 3 pi^0)gemessen. Für das Verzweigungsverhältnis vonK_s -> gamma gamma existiert eine eindeutige undendliche Vorhersage in der Ordnung O(p^4) derChiralen Störungstheorie (CHPT) vonBR(K_s -> gamma gamma)(O(p^4)) = (2,1 +- 0,1)x10^(-6).Alle bisherigen Messungen befanden sich in guterÜbereinstimmung mit dieser Vorhersage.Die Ergebnisse der für diese Arbeit durchgeführten Analyse lauten:

Grenzflächenspannung und Morphologie fließender zweiphasiger Polymermischungen

In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die Morphologie von zweiphasigen Polymermischungen unter Scherung in situ mit Hilfe einer Kombination aus optischer Scherzelle, Durchlichtmikroskop und computergestützten CCD-Kamera untersucht. Als Modellblends dienten die unverträglichen, bei Raumtemperatur flüssigen Polymersysteme Polyisobutylen (PIB)/Polydimethylsiloxan (PDMS) (I) und Poly(dimethyl-co-methylphenyl)siloxan/PDMS (II). Alle Komponenten verhalten sich bei den verwendeten Scherraten newtonisch.Eine der wichtigsten Einflussgrößen für die Blendmorphologie ist die Grenzflächenspannung gamma 12. Sie wurde für I und II mit Hilfe der Methode der Tropfenrelaxation (dynamisch) als Funktion der Zeit bestimmt. Diese Methode erlaubt die Messung von gamma 12 für Tropfen der Phase A in B sowie von Tropfen B in A. Bei der Methode des hängenden Tropfens (statisch) muss der Tropfen aus der Phase mit der höheren Dichte bestehen. Wo der Vergleich der beiden Methoden möglich ist, stimmen die Ergebnisse für beide Systeme sehr gut überein. Bei II sind die aus der Tropfenrelaxation erhaltenen gamma 12-Werte der beiden komplementären Zusammensetzungen im Rahmen des Fehlers gleich, bei I zeigt ein PIB-Tropfen in PDMS einen um 40 % niedrigeren Wert als ein PDMS-Tropfen in PIB, dies wird auf die Diffusion von kurzkettigen Anteilen des PDMS in die Grenzschicht zurückgeführt. Die Grenzflächenspannung hängt also unter Umständen auch bei binären Systemen deutlich von der Zusammensetzung ab.Für II wurde die Blendmorphologie über den gesamten Zusammensetzungsbereich untersucht. Die häufig beobachteten cokontinuierlichen Strukturen treten bei keiner Zusammensetzung auf. Die Phaseninversion erkennt man in einer sprunghaften Änderung der Tropfengröße zwischen phiPDMS <= 0,400 und 0,500; zudem lässt sich die Zeitabhängigkeit der Radien durch Auftragung gegen das Produkt aus der Deformation und dem Quadrat des Volumenbruchs der Tropfenphase für 0 <= phiPDMS <= 0,400 sowie 0,500 <= phiPDMS <= 1 normieren. Für I und II wurde die Morphologieentwicklung bei 25 °C nach Vorscherung bei 100 bzw. 50 s-1 und anschließendem Sprung der Scherrate auf deutlich niedrigere Werte als Funktion der Zeit verfolgt. Hierbei erhält man bei genügend langer Messdauer (mindestens 200 000-300 000 Schereinheiten) konstante Tropfengrößen. Zum einen handelt es sich dabei um pseudo-stationäre Werte, die nur durch Koaleszenz bestimmt sind, zum anderen um echte stationäre Radien, die durch gleichzeitig ablaufende Koaleszenz und Zerteilung entstehen. Für I liegen die stationären Mittelwerte auf der Zerteilungskurve, für II hingegen auf der Koaleszenzkurve.Der Einfluss eines grenzflächenwirksamen Additivs wurde anhand von I durch Zugabe des Blockcopolymer PIB-b-PDMS zu PIB untersucht. Der Vergleich des zeitlichen Verlaufs von gamma 12 mit der Morphologieentwicklung zeigt, dass das Additiv eine Stabilisierung der feinen Tropfen/Matrix-Struktur des Blends durch Hinderung der Koaleszenz und nicht durch Reduktion der Grenzflächenspannung bewirkt.

Quantification of deformation processes in the Torlesse accretionary wedge, New Zealand

Zusammenfassung:In dieser Studie werden Deformationsprozesse im mesozoischen Torlesse Akkretionskeil (Neuseeland) quantifiziert, um Aufschluß über die Dynamik in Akkretionskeilen zu erhalten. Absolute und relative Verformungsmessungen zeigen sowohl im lokalen als auch regionalen Maßstab eine stark heterogene Deformation des Torlesse Keils. Die regionale Deformation wurde mit Hilfe einer Tensordurchschnittsberechnung, unter Benutzung einzelner lokaler Verformungsdaten, als uniaxiale Verkürzung entlang einer subvertikalen, maximalen Verkürzungsachse charakterisiert. Absolute Verformungsmessungen an niedriggradigen Metasandsteinen belegen darüber hinaus durchschnittliche Volumenverluste von ca. 20% SiO2. Volumenveränderungen in tieferkrustalen Aufschlüssen wurden mittels einer geochemischen Massenbilanzanalyse abgeschätzt. Chemische Zusammensetzungen höhergradiger Zonen weichen je nach Grad der Volumenverformung von der Protolitzusammensetzung ab und zeigen somit Verluste von 15% SiO2 an. Da Speicherorte für das gelöste Material nicht bekannt sind, muss angenommen werden, dass das Material aus dem Keil abtransportiert wurde. Die Verformungsergebnisse geben weiterhin Aufschluß über den Grad der Kopplung zwischen Akkretionskeil und subduzierter Platte. Die ermittelten Scherwerte in den Gesteinen liegen deutlich unter den zu erwartenden Scherwerten, die mittels eines einfachen Modells berechnet wurden, das sowohl verschiedene Konvergenzgeschwindigkeiten als auch Exhumierungsraten berücksichtigt. Dies belegt, dass der Torlesse Keil stark von der subduzierten pazifischen Platte entkoppelt war und die Deformation hauptsächlich durch den Fluß der Sedimente in und aus dem Keil bestimmt wurde.