Forest Biomass Resources and Technological Prospects for the Production of Second-generation Biofuels in Finland by 2020

Introduction of second-generation biofuels is an essential factor for meeting the EU’s 2020 targets for renewable energy in the transport sector and enabling the more ambitious targets for 2030. Finland’s forest industry is strongly involved in the development and commercialising of second-generation biofuel production technologies. The goal of this paper is to provide a quantified insight into Finnish prospects for reaching the 2020 national renewable energy targets and concurrently becoming a large-scale producer of forest biomass based second-generation biofuels feeding the increasing demand in European markets. The focus of the paper is on assessing the potential for utilising forest biomass for liquid biofuels up to 2020. In addition, technological issues related to the production of second-generation biofuels were reviewed. Finland has good opportunities to realise a scenario to meet 2020 renewable energy targets and for large-scale production of wood based biofuels. In 2020, biofuel production from domestic forest biomass in Finland may reach nearly a million ton (40 PJ). With the existing biofuel production capacity (20 PJ/yr) and national biofuel consumption target (25 PJ) taken into account, the potential net export of biofuels from Finland in 2020 would be 35 PJ, corresponding to 2–3% of European demand. Commercialisation of second-generation biofuel production technologies, high utilisation of the sustainable harvesting potential of Finnish forest biomass, and allocation of a significant proportion of the pulpwood harvesting potential for energy purposes are prerequisites for this scenario. Large-scale import of raw biomass would enable remarkably greater biofuel production than is described in this paper.

Litter fall production and decomposition in a fragment of secondary Atlantic Forest of São Paulo, sp, southeastern Brazil

Litter fall consists of all organic material deposited on the forest floor, being of extremely important for the structure and maintenance of the ecosystem through nutrient cycling. This study aimed to evaluate the production and decomposition of litter fall in a secondary Atlantic forest fragment of secondary Atlantic Forest, at the Guarapiranga Ecological Park, in São Paulo, SP. The litter samples were taken monthly from May 2012 to May 2013. To assess the contribution of litter fall forty collectors were installed randomly within an area of 0.5 ha. The collected material was sent to the laboratory to be dried at 65 °C for 72 hours, being subsequently separated into fractions of leaves, twigs, reproductive parts and miscellaneous, and weighed to obtain the dry biomass. Litterbags were placed and tied close to the collectors to estimate the decomposition rate in order to evaluate the loss of dry biomass at 30, 60, 90, 120 and 150 days. After collection, the material was sent to the laboratory to be dried and weighed again. Total litter fall throughout the year reached 5.7 Mg.ha-1.yr-1 and the major amount of the material was collected from September till March. Leaves had the major contribution for total litter fall (72%), followed by twigs (14%), reproductive parts (11%) and miscellaneous (3%). Reproductive parts had a peak during the wet season. Positive correlation was observed between total litter and precipitation, temperature and radiation (r = 0.66, p<0.05; r = 0.76, p<0.05; r = 0.58, p<0.05, respectively). The multiple regression showed that precipitation and radiation contributed significantly to litter fall production. Decomposition rate was in the interval expected for secondary tropical forest and was correlated to rainfall. It was concluded that this fragment of secondary forest showed a seasonality effect driven mainly by precipitation and radiation, both important components of foliage renewal for the plant community and that decomposition was in an intermediate rate.

ASSESSMENT OF A 5-YEAR-OLD REHABILITATED RIPARIAN FOREST: IS IT ALREADY SUSTAINABLE?

ABSTRACTAs important as the establishment of projects of ecological restoration is its assessment post-implementation to know whether the area is becoming self-sustainable or need to be redirected. In this way, this study aimed to know the current situation of a 5-year-old rehabilitated riparian forest,inserted in an anthropogenic impacted region,at the das Velhas River, Minas Gerais State, studying the canopy openness and recruitment of seedlings as plant indicators. 15 plots were allocated in the forest, where hemispherical photographs were taken to analyze the canopy openness and evaluate all seedlings from 0.30 m to 1.30 m height.Canopy openness ranged from 23.7% to 38.8% between seasons and only 192 seedlings were found,from 13 species, five of them exotic and aggressive. Although canopy openness was low, it seems that lateral penetration of light has been favoring the development and dominancy of plants from invasive species, whereas few native ones have been recruited. The exotic/invasive plants may compromise the success of restoration mainly by competition with native planted species. The outcomes evidenced an unsustainability of the riparian forest and the requirement of some management actions to control exotic and invasive plants and ensure the preservation of the area and its ecological roles over time.

LITTERFALL ASSESSEMENT IN A FRAGMENT OF SECONDARY TROPICAL FOREST, IBIÚNA, SP, SOUTHEASTERN BRAZIL1

ABSTRACT The present study aimed to analyze the production and decomposition of litterfall in a fragment of secondary Atlantic forest in the region of Ibiúna, SP, from April 2012 to March 2013. The litterfall production was estimated by 30 collectors distributed randomly in an area of 1000 m2, where the deposited material was collected every 15 days. The decomposition of litterfall was estimated through the mass loss in the period of study. After collecting, the material was dried in an oven at 65 °C for seven days to achieve a constant weight. The decomposition constant k was obteined according to Shanks and Oslon (1961) and the time for 50% and 95% of decomposition was estimated. It was found a higher litterfall production in October (454.3 kg ha-1) and lower production in July (164.9 kg ha-1), with a total amount produced of 3.5 Mg ha-1 year-1. A delay of one month in the precipitation and relative humidity showed great influence in the litter production during the study. The decomposition rate (k) was 3.1 and the time to decompose 50% of the material was estimated in 2 and ½ months and for 95% of the litterfall the time was estimated in 11 and ½ months. The production and decomposition values of this work are within the range found in other sites of secondary tropical forests.

PRESERVATION OF PRIMARY FOREST CHARACTERISTICS DESPITE FRAGMENTATION AND ISOLATION IN A FOREST REMNANT FROM VIÇOSA, MG, BRAZIL1

According to its owners, the Forest of Seu Nico (FSN) from the Viçosa municipality, Minas Gerais, Brazil, never has been logged and is therefore considered a primary forest. Nevertheless, the forest patch suffered impacts due to selective wood and non-timber extraction, fragmentation and isolation. Aim of this study was to test if the FSN, despite impacts, preserved characteristics of primary forests, which are elevated percentages of non-pioneer (>90%), animal-dispersed (>80 %), understory (>50%) and endemic species (~40%). For that, all trees with diameter at breast height equal or major than 3.2 cm within a plot of 100 x 100 m were identified. With 218 tree species found within this hectare, the FSN's species richness is outstanding for the region. The percentages of non-pioneer (92 %), animal-dispersed (85 %), understory (55 %) and endemic species (39.2 %) from the FSN fulfill the criteria proposed for primary forest. Therefore, we conclude that the FSN maintained its characteristics as a primary forest which highlights its importance for the conservation of biotic resources in the region, where similar fragments are lacking or not described yet.

FOREST LITTER DECOMPOSITION AS AFFECTED BY EUCALYPTUS STAND AGE AND TOPOGRAPHY IN SOUTH-EASTERN BRAZIL1

Forest litter decomposition is a major process in returning nutrients to soils and thus promoting wood productivity in the humid tropic. This study aimed to assess decomposition of eucalypt litter in the Rio Doce region, Brazil. Leaf litter was sampled under clonal eucalypt stands aged 2, 4 and 6 years on hillslopes and footslopes. Soil and soil+litter samples were incubated at two levels of soil moisture, temperature and fertilization. C-CO2 emissions from soil measured during 106 days were higher at 32 °C than at 23°C, mainly for the 2-yr-old stand on footslope. When leaf litter was added on soils, C-CO2 emissions were eight times higher, mainly on footslopes, with no effect of stand age. Leaf decomposition in situ, assessed with a litterbag experiment showed a mean weight loss of at least 50% during 365 days, reaching 74% for 2 yr-old stands on footslopes. In comparison with data from the native forest and the literature, no apparent restrictions were found in eucalypt litter decomposition. Differences between in vitro and in situ results, and between eucalypt and native forest, were most likely related to the response of diverse decomposer communities and to substrate quality.

EVALUATION OF THE POTENTIAL OF SEED RAIN AS AN ALTERNATIVE FOR FOREST RESTORATION IN PERMANENT PRESERVATION AREAS1

ABSTRACT The ecological restoration of degraded areas using seeds collected in forest remnants has shown significant results. This study was developed to verify the potential of seed rain to regenerate forest fragments of a Permanent Preservation Area (PPA) in the Apa River Basin which is located in the southwestern portion of the Mato Grosso do Sul state, Brazil. To develop the study, we installed 25 collectors measuring 1 m2 each, which were systematically distributed on an area of 1.5ha. Seed gathering was conducted in a monthly basis throughout the year of 2013. A total of 26.411 propagules were identified and distributed among 50 species, 45 genera and 32 families. In terms of the propagules distribution, 70.51% were identified as trees, 22.8% as lianas, 6.5% as shrubs, 0.1 as herbaceous, 0.05% as palm and 0.05% could not be classified. The value for the Shannon Diversity Index was (H') = 1.67 and the Pielou Evenness index was (J) = 0.42. These results indicate that the seeds rain has low species diversity with the abundance of a few species. The overall results suggest that seed rain can be a potential technique for restoration of the PPAs and other forested areas. However, it is necessary to enhance the diversity of tree species.

SOIL ORGANIC CARBON, CARBON STOCK AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS TO PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES UNDER FOREST SOILS IN CENTRAL AMAZONIA

ABSTRACT The soil carbon under Amazonian forests has an important roles in global changing, making information on the soil content and depths of these stocks are considerable interest in efforts to quantify soil carbon emissions to the atmosphere.This study quantified the content and soil organic carbon stock under primary forest up to 2 m depth, at different topographic positions, at Cuieiras Biological Reserve, Manaus/ ZF2, km 34, in the Central Amazon, evaluating the soil attributes that may influence the permanence of soil carbon. Soil samples were collected along a transect of 850 m on topographic gradient Oxisol (plateau), Ultisol (slope) and Spodosol (valley). The stocks of soil carbon were obtained by multiplying the carbon content, soil bulk density and trickiness of soil layers. The watershed was delimited by using STRM and IKONOS images and the carbon contend obtained in the transects was extrapolated as a way to evaluate the potential for carbon stocks in an area of 2678.68 ha. The total SOC was greater in Oxisol followed by Spodosol and Ultisol. It was found direct correlations between the SOC and soil physical attributes. Among the clay soils (Oxisol and Ultisol), the largest stocks of carbon were observed in Oxisol at both the transect (90 to 175.5 Mg C ha-1) as the level of watershed (100.2 to 195.2 Mg C ha-1). The carbon stocks under sandy soil (Spodosol) was greater to clay soils along the transect (160-241 Mg C ha-1) and near them in the Watershed (96.90 to 146.01 Mg C ha-1).

SOIL COVER AND CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES IN OXISOL IN THE ATLANTIC FOREST BIOME

ABSTRACT The objective of this study was to evaluate the chemical and physical attributes of different soil cover in a Oxisol with a strong wavy relief in the Atlantic Forest Biome, in which were selected three watersheds, employed with grazing (watershed P), forest (watershed M) and coffee (watershed C). Deformed and not deformed samples were collected in three depths for physical and chemical characterization. The chemical characteristics of soil in different watershed studies presented low levels of fertility. It was observed an elevation of pH in the soil and contents of Ca2+ and Mg2+ in the watersheds P and C in relation to the watershed M. Due to deforestation and the establishment of agriculture and livestock, there was a decrease in the contents of soil organic matter in the watershed P and C, not altering the physical characteristics of the soil in the watershed P. The implementation of coffee plantation is causing a reduction in the soil quality of watershed C in comparison to the watershed P and M, therefore indicating a need to adequate soil management in this area.