Efecto de las cubiertas ajardinadas sobre el microclima urbano de verano

El cambio climático y sus efectos requieren con urgencia el desarrollo de estrategias capaces no solo de mitigar pero también permitir la adaptación de los sistemas afectados por este fenómeno a los cambios que están provocando a nivel mundial. Olas de calor más largas y frecuentes, inundaciones, y graves sequías aumentan la vulnerabilidad de la población, especialmente en asentamientos urbanos. Este fenómeno y sus soluciones potenciales han sido ampliamente estudiados en las últimas décadas desde diferentes perspectivas y escalas que analizan desde el fenómeno regional de isla de calor al aumento de la intensidad energética necesaria en los edificios para mantener las condiciones de confort en los escenarios de calentamiento que se predicen. Su comprensión requiere el entendimiento de este fenómeno y un profundo análisis de las estrategias que pueden corregirlo y adaptarse a él. En la búsqueda de soluciones a este problema, las estrategias que incorporan sistemas naturales tales como las cubiertas ajardinadas, las fachadas vegetadas y bosques urbanos, se presentan como opciones de diseño capaces de proporcionan múltiples servicios al ecosistema urbano y de regular y hacer frente a los efectos del cambio climático. Entre los servicios que aportan estos sistemas naturales se incluyen la gestión de agua de tormentas, el control del efecto isla de calor, la mejora de la calidad del aire y del agua, el aumento de la diversidad, y como consecuencia de todo lo anterior, la reducción de la huella ecológica de las ciudades. En la última década, se han desarrollado múltiples estudios para evaluar y cuantificar los servicios al ecosistema proporcionados por las infraestructuras verdes, y específicamente las cubiertas ajardinadas, sin embargo, determinados servicios como la capacidad de la regulación del microclima urbano no ha sido apenas estudiados. La mayor parte de la literatura en este campo la componen estudios relacionados con la capacidad de las cubiertas ajardinadas de reducir el efecto de la isla de calor, en una escala local, o acerca de la reducción de la demanda energética de refrigeración debida a la instalación de cubiertas ajardinadas en la escala de edificio. La escala intermedia entre estos dos ámbitos, la calle, desde su ámbito habitable cercano al suelo hasta el límite superior del cañón urbano que configura, no han sido objeto detallado de estudio por lo que es esta escala el objeto de esta tesis doctoral. Esta investigación tiene como objeto contribuir en este campo y aportar un mayor entendimiento a través de la cuantificación del impacto de las cubiertas ajardinadas sobre la temperatura y humedad en el cañón urbano en la escala de calle y con un especial foco en el nivel peatonal. El primer paso de esta investigación ha sido la definición del objeto de estudio a través del análisis y revisión de trabajos tanto teóricos como empíricos que investigan los efectos de cubiertas ajardinadas en el entorno construido, entendidas como una herramienta para la adaptación y mitigación del impacto del cambio climático en las ciudades. La literatura analizada, revela el gran potencial de los sistemas vegetales como herramientas para el diseño pasivo puesto que no solo son capaces de mejorar las condiciones climáticas y microclimaticas en las ciudades reduciendo su demanda energética, sino también la necesidad de mayor análisis en la escala de calle donde confluyen el clima, las superficies urbanas y materiales y vegetación. Este análisis requiere una metodología donde se integren la respuesta térmica de edificios, las variaciones en los patrones de viento y radiación, y la interacción con la vegetación, por lo que un análisis cuantitativo puede ayudar a definir las estrategias más efectivas para lograr espacios urbanos más habitables. En este contexto, el objetivo principal de esta investigación ha sido la evaluación cuantitativa del impacto de la cubierta ajardinada en el microclima urbano a escala de barrio en condiciones de verano en los climas mediterráneos continentales. Para el logro de este objetivo, se ha seguido un proceso que persigue identificar los modelos y herramientas de cálculo capaces de capturar el efecto de la cubierta ajardinada sobre el microclima, identificar los parámetros que potencian o limitan este efecto, y cuantificar las variaciones que microclima creado en el cañón urbano produce en el consumo de energía de los edificios que rodean éste espacio. La hipótesis principal detrás de esta investigación y donde los objetivos anteriores se basan es el siguiente: "una cubierta ajardinada instalada en edificios de mediana altura favorece el establecimiento de microclimas a nivel peatonal y reduce las temperaturas en el entorno urbano donde se encuentra”. Con el fin de verificar la hipótesis anterior y alcanzar los objetivos propuestos se ha seguido la siguiente metodología: • definición del alcance y limitaciones del análisis • Selección de las herramientas y modelos de análisis • análisis teórico de los parámetros que afectan el efecto de las cubiertas ajardinadas • análisis experimental; • modelización energética • conclusiones y futuras líneas de trabajo Dada la complejidad de los fenómenos que intervienen en la generación de unas determinadas condiciones microclimáticas, se ha limitado el objeto de este estudio a las variables de temperatura y humedad, y sólo se han tenido en cuenta los componentes bióticos y abióticos del sistema, que incluyen la morfología, características superficiales del entorno estudiado, así como los elementos vegetales. Los componentes antrópicos no se han incluido en este análisis. La búsqueda de herramientas adecuadas para cumplir con los objetivos de este análisis ha concluido en la selección de ENVI-met v4 como el software más adecuado para esta investigación por su capacidad para representar los complejos fenómenos que caracterizan el microclima en cañones urbanos, en una escala temporal diaria y con unas escala local de vecindario. Esta herramienta supera el desafío que plantean los requisitos informáticos de un cálculo completo basado en elementos finitos realizados a través de herramientas de dinámica de fluidos computacional (CFD) que requieren una capacidad de cálculo computacional y tiempo privativos y en una escala dimensional y temporal limitada a esta capacidad computacional lo que no responde a los objetivos de esta investigación. ENVI-met 4 se basa es un modelo tridimensional del micro clima diseñado para simular las interacciones superficie-planta-aire en entornos urbanos. Basado en las ecuaciones fundamentales del equilibrio que representan, la conservación de masa, energía y momento. ENVI-met es un software predictivo, y como primer paso ha requerido la definición de las condiciones iniciales de contorno que se utilizan como punto de partida por el software para generar su propio perfil de temperatura y humedad diaria basada en la localización de la construcción, geometría, vegetación y las superficies de características físicas del entorno. La geometría de base utilizada para este primer análisis se ha basado en una estructura típica en cuanto al trazado urbano situada en Madrid que se ha simulado con una cubierta tradicional y una cubierta ajardinada en sus edificios. La estructura urbana seleccionada para este análisis comparativo es una red ortogonal con las calles principales orientadas este-oeste. El edificio típico que compone el vecindario se ha definido como “business as usual” (BAU) y se ha definido con una cubierta de baldosa de hormigón estándar, con un albedo 0.3, paredes con albedo 0.2 (construcción de muro de ladrillo típico) y cerramientos adiabáticos para evitar las posibles interferencias causadas por el intercambio térmico con el ambiente interior del edificio en los resultados del análisis. Para el caso de la cubierta ajardinada, se mantiene la misma geometría y características del edificio con excepción de la cobertura superficial de la azotea. Las baldosas de hormigón se han modificado con una cubierta ajardinada extensiva cubierta con plantas xerófilas, típicas en el clima de Madrid y caracterizado por su índice de densidad foliar, el “leaf area density” (LAD), que es la superficie total de superficie de hojas por unidad de volumen (m2/m3). El análisis se centra en los cañones urbanos entendidos como el espacio de calle comprendido entre los límites geométricos de la calle, verticales y horizontales, y el nivel superior de la cota urbana nivel de cubiertas. Los escenarios analizados se basan en la variación de la los principales parámetros que según la literatura analizada condicionan las variaciones microclimáticas en el ámbito urbano afectado por la vegetación, la velocidad del viento y el LAD de la azotea. Los resultados han sido registrados bajo condiciones de exposición solar diferentes. Las simulaciones fueron realizadas por los patrones de viento típico de verano, que para Madrid se caracterizan por vientos de componente suroeste que van desde 3 a 0 m/s. las simulaciones fueron realizadas para unas condiciones climáticas de referencia de 3, 2, 1 y 0 m/s a nivel superior del cañón urbano, como condición de contorno para el análisis. Los resultados calculados a 1,4 metros por encima del nivel del suelo, en el espacio habitado, mostraron que el efecto de la cubierta ajardinada era menor en condiciones de contorno con velocidades de viento más altas aunque en ningún caso el efecto de la cubierta verde sobre la temperatura del aire superó reducciones de temperatura de aire superiores a 1 º C. La humedad relativa no presentó variaciones significativas al comparar los diferentes escenarios. Las simulaciones realizadas para vientos con velocidad baja, entre 0 y 1 m/s mostraron que por debajo de 0.5 m/s la turbulencia del modelo aumentó drásticamente y se convirtió en el modelo inestable e incapaz de producir resultados fiables. Esto es debido al modelo de turbulencia en el software que no es válido para velocidades de viento bajas, lo que limita la capacidad de ENVI-met 4 para realizar simulaciones en estas condiciones de viento y es una de las principales conclusiones de este análisis en cuanto a la herramienta de simulación. También se comprobó el efecto de las densidades de la densidad de hoja (LAD) de los componentes vegetales en el modelo en la capa de aire inmediatamente superior a la cubierta, a 0,5 m sobre este nivel. Se compararon tres alternativas de densidad de hoja con la cubierta de baldosa de hormigón: el techo verde con LAD 0.3 (hierba típica o sedum), LAD 1.5 (plantas mixtas típicas) y LAD 2.5 (masa del árbol). Los resultados mostraron diferencias de temperatura muy relevante entre las diferentes alternativas de LAD analizadas. Los resultados muestran variaciones de temperatura que oscilan entre 3 y 5 º C al comparar el estándar de la azotea concreta con albedo 0, 3 con el techo con vegetación y vegetación densa, mostrando la importancia del LAD en la cuantificación de los efectos de las cubiertas vegetales en microclima circundante, lo que coincide con los datos reportados en la literatura existente y con los estudios empíricos analizados. Los resultados de los análisis teóricos han llegado a las siguientes conclusiones iniciales relacionadas con la herramienta de simulación y los resultados del modelo: En relación con la herramienta ENVI-met, se han observado limitaciones para el análisis. En primer lugar, la estructura rígida de la geometría, las bases de datos y el tamaño de la cuadrícula, limitan la escala y resolución de los análisis no permitiendo el desarrollo de grandes zonas urbanas. Por otro lado la estructura de ENVI-met permite el desarrollo de este tipo de simulación tan complejo dentro de tiempos razonables de cálculo y requerimientos computacionales convencionales. Otra limitación es el modelo de turbulencia del software, que no modela correctamente velocidades de viento bajas (entre 0 y 1 m/s), por debajo de 0,5 m/s el modelo da errores y no es estable, los resultados a estas velocidades no son fiables porque las turbulencias generadas por el modelo hacen imposible la extracción de patrones claros de viento y temperatura que permitan la comparación entre los escenarios de cubierta de hormigón y ajardinada. Además de las limitaciones anteriores, las bases de datos y parámetros de entrada en la versión pública del software están limitados y la complejidad de generar nuevos sistemas adaptándolos al edificio o modelo urbano que se quiera reproducir no es factible salvo en la versión profesional del software. Aparte de las limitaciones anteriores, los patrones de viento y perfiles de temperatura generados por ENVI-met concuerdan con análisis previos en los que se identificaban patrones de variación de viento y temperaturas en cañones urbanos con patrones de viento, relación de aspecto y dimensiones similares a los analizados en esta investigación. Por lo tanto, el software ha demostrado una buena capacidad para reproducir los patrones de viento en los cañones de la calle y capturar el efecto de enfriamiento producido por la cubierta verde en el cañón. En relación con el modelo, el resultado revela la influencia del viento, la radiación y el LAD en la temperatura del aire en cañones urbanos con relación de aspecto comprendida entre 0,5 y 1. Siendo el efecto de la cubierta verde más notable en cañones urbanos sombreados con relación de aspecto 1 y velocidades de viento en el nivel de “canopy” (por encima de la cubierta) de 1 m/s. En ningún caso las reducciones en la temperatura del aire excedieron 1 º C, y las variaciones en la humedad relativa no excedieron 1% entre los escenarios estudiados. Una vez que se han identificado los parámetros relevantes, que fueron principalmente la velocidad del viento y el LAD, se realizó un análisis experimental para comprobar los resultados obtenidos por el modelo. Para éste propósito se identificó una cubierta ajardinada de grandes dimensiones capaz de representar la escala urbana que es el objeto del estudio. El edificio usado para este fin fue el parking de la terminal 4 del aeropuerto internacional de Madrid. Aunque esto no es un área urbana estándar, la escala y la configuración del espacio alrededor del edificio fueron considerados aceptables para el análisis por su similitud con el contexto urbano objeto de estudio. El edificio tiene 800 x 200 m, y una altura 15 m. Está rodeado de vías de acceso pavimentadas con aceras conformando un cañón urbano limitado por el edificio del parking, la calle y el edificio de la terminal T4. El aparcamiento está cerrado con fachadas que configuran un espacio urbano de tipo cañón, con una relación de aspecto menor que 0,5. Esta geometría presenta patrones de viento y velocidad dentro del cañón que difieren ligeramente de los generados en el estudio teórico y se acercan más a los valores a nivel de canopo sobre la cubierta del edificio, pero que no han afectado a la tendencia general de los resultados obtenidos. El edificio cuenta con la cubierta ajardinada más grande en Europa, 12 Ha cubiertas por con una mezcla de hierbas y sedum y con un valor estimado de LAD de 1,5. Los edificios están rodeados por áreas plantadas en las aceras y árboles de sombra en las fachadas del edificio principal. El efecto de la cubierta ajardinada se evaluó mediante el control de temperaturas y humedad relativa en el cañón en un día típico de verano. La selección del día se hizo teniendo en cuenta las predicciones meteorológicas para que fuesen lo más semejantes a las condiciones óptimas para capturar el efecto de la cubierta vegetal sobre el microclima urbano identificadas en el modelo teórico. El 09 de julio de 2014 fue seleccionado para la campaña de medición porque las predicciones mostraban 1 m/s velocidad del viento y cielos despejados, condiciones muy similares a las condiciones climáticas bajo las que el efecto de la cubierta ajardinada era más notorio en el modelo teórico. Las mediciones se registraron cada hora entre las 9:00 y las 19:00 en 09 de julio de 2014. Temperatura, humedad relativa y velocidad del viento se registraron en 5 niveles diferentes, a 1.5, 4.5, 7.5, 11.5 y 16 m por encima del suelo y a 0,5 m de distancia de la fachada del edificio. Las mediciones fueron tomadas en tres escenarios diferentes, con exposición soleada, exposición la sombra y exposición influenciada por los árboles cercanos y suelo húmedo. Temperatura, humedad relativa y velocidad del viento se registraron con un equipo TESTO 410-2 con una resolución de 0,1 ºC para temperatura, 0,1 m/s en la velocidad del viento y el 0,1% de humedad relativa. Se registraron las temperaturas de la superficie de los edificios circundantes para evaluar su efecto sobre los registros usando una cámara infrarroja FLIR E4, con resolución de temperatura 0,15ºC. Distancia mínima a la superficie de 0,5 m y rango de las mediciones de Tª de - 20 º C y 250 º C. Los perfiles de temperatura extraídos de la medición in situ mostraron la influencia de la exposición solar en las variaciones de temperatura a lo largo del día, así como la influencia del calor irradiado por las superficies que habían sido expuestas a la radiación solar así como la influencia de las áreas de jardín alrededor del edificio. Después de que las medidas fueran tomadas, se llevaron a cabo las siguientes simulaciones para evaluar el impacto de la cubierta ajardinada en el microclima: a. estándar de la azotea: edificio T4 asumiendo un techo de tejas de hormigón con albedo 0.3. b. b. cubierta vegetal : T4 edificio asumiendo una extensa cubierta verde con valor bajo del LAD (0.5)-techo de sedum simple. c. c. cubierta vegetal: T4 edificio asumiendo una extensa cubierta verde con alta joven valor 1.5-mezcla de plantas d. d. cubierta ajardinada más vegetación nivel calle: el edificio T4 con LAD 1.5, incluyendo los árboles existentes a nivel de calle. Este escenario representa las condiciones actuales del edificio medido. El viento de referencia a nivel de cubierta se fijó en 1 m/s, coincidente con el registro de velocidad de viento en ese nivel durante la campaña de medición. Esta velocidad del viento se mantuvo constante durante toda la campaña. Bajo las condiciones anteriores, los resultados de los modelos muestran un efecto moderado de azoteas verdes en el microclima circundante que van desde 1 º a 2 º C, pero una contribución mayor cuando se combina con vegetación a nivel peatonal. En este caso las reducciones de temperatura alcanzan hasta 4 ºC. La humedad relativa sin embargo, no presenta apenas variación entre los escenarios con y sin cubierta ajardinada. Las temperaturas medidas in situ se compararon con resultados del modelo, mostrando una gran similitud en los perfiles definidos en ambos casos. Esto demuestra la buena capacidad de ENVI-met para reproducir el efecto de la cubierta ajardinada sobre el microclima y por tanto para el fin de esta investigación. Las diferencias más grandes se registraron en las áreas cercanas a las zonas superiores de las fachadas que estaban más expuestas a la radiación del sol y también el nivel del suelo, por la influencia de los pavimentos. Estas diferencias se pudieron causar por las características de los cerramientos en el modelo que estaban limitados por los datos disponibles en la base de datos de software, y que se diferencian con los del edificio real. Una observación importante derivada de este estudio es la contribución del suelo húmedo en el efecto de la cubierta ajardinada en la temperatura del aire. En el escenario de la cubierta ajardinada con los arboles existentes a pie de calle, el efecto del suelo húmedo contribuye a aumentar las reducciones de temperatura hasta 4.5ºC, potenciando el efecto combinado de la cubierta ajardinada y la vegetación a pie de calle. Se realizó un análisis final después de extraer el perfil horario de temperaturas en el cañón urbano influenciado por el efecto de las cubiertas ajardinadas y los árboles. Con esos perfiles modificados de temperatura y humedad se desarrolló un modelo energético en el edificio asumiendo un edificio cerrado y climatizado, con uso de oficinas, una temperatura de consigna de acuerdo al RITE de 26 ºC, y con los sistemas por defecto que establece el software para el cálculo de la demanda energética y que responden a ASHRAE 90.1. El software seleccionado para la simulación fue Design Builder, por su capacidad para generar simulaciones horarias y por ser una de las herramientas de simulación energética más reconocidas en el mercado. Los perfiles modificados de temperatura y humedad se insertaron en el año climático tipo y se condujo la simulación horaria para el día definido, el 9 de Julio. Para la simulación se dejaron por defecto los valores de conductancia térmica de los cerramientos y la eficiencia de los equipos de acuerdo a los valores que fija el estándar ASHRAE para la zona climática de Madrid, que es la 4. El resultado mostraba reducciones en el consumo de un día pico de hasta un 14% de reducción en las horas punta. La principal conclusión de éste estudio es la confirmación del potencial de las cubiertas ajardinadas como una estrategia para reducir la temperatura del aire y consumo de energía en los edificios, aunque este efecto puede ser limitado por la influencia de los vientos, la radiación y la especie seleccionada para el ajardinamiento, en especial de su LAD. Así mismo, en combinación con los bosques urbanos su efecto se potencia e incluso más si hay pavimentos húmedos o suelos porosos incluidos en la morfología del cañón urbano, convirtiéndose en una estrategia potencial para adaptar los ecosistemas urbanos el efecto aumento de temperatura derivado del cambio climático. En cuanto a la herramienta, ENVI-met se considera una buena opción para éste tipo de análisis dada su capacidad para reproducir de un modo muy cercano a la realidad el efecto de las cubiertas. Aparte de ser una herramienta validada en estudios anteriores, en el caso experimental se ha comprobado por medio de la comparación de las mediciones con los resultados del modelo. A su vez, los resultados y patrones de vientos generados en los cañones urbanos coinciden con otros estudios similares, concluyendo por tanto que es un software adecuado para el objeto de esta tesis doctoral. Como líneas de investigación futura, sería necesario entender el efecto de la cubierta ajardinada en el microclima urbano en diferentes zonas climáticas, así como un mayor estudio de otras variables que no se han observado en este análisis, como la temperatura media radiante y los indicadores de confort. Así mismo, la evaluación de otros parámetros que afectan el microclima urbano tales como variables geométricas y propiedades superficiales debería ser analizada en profundidad para tener un resultado que cubra todas las variables que afectan el microclima en el cañón urbano. ABSTRACT Climate Change is posing an urgency in the development of strategies able not only to mitigate but also adapt to the effects that this global problem is evidencing around the world. Heat waves, flooding and severe draughts increase the vulnerability of population, and this is especially critical in urban settlements. This has been extensively studied over the past decades, addressed from different perspectives and ranging from the regional heat island analysis to the building scale. Its understanding requires physical and dimensional analysis of this broad phenomenon and a deep analysis of the factors and the strategies which can offset it. In the search of solutions to this problem, green infrastructure elements such as green roofs, walls and urban forests arise as strategies able provide multiple regulating ecosystem services to the urban environment able to cope with climate change effects. This includes storm water management, heat island effect control, and improvement of air and water quality. Over the last decade, multiple studies have been developed to evaluate and quantify the ecosystem services provided by green roofs, however, specific regulating services addressing urban microclimate and their impact on the urban dwellers have not been widely quantified. This research tries to contribute to fill this gap and analyzes the effects of green roofs and urban forests on urban microclimate at pedestrian level, quantifying its potential for regulating ambient temperature in hot season in Mediterranean –continental climates. The study is divided into a sequence of analysis where the critical factors affecting the performance of the green roof system on the microclimate are identified and the effects of the green roof is tested in a real case study. The first step has been the definition of the object of study, through the analysis and review of theoretical and empirical papers that investigate the effects of covers landscaped in the built environment, in the context of its use as a tool for adaptation and mitigation of the impact of climate change on cities and urban development. This literature review, reveals the great potential of the plant systems as a tool for passive design capable of improving the climatic and microclimatic conditions in the cities, as well as its positive impact on the energy performance of buildings, but also the need for further analysis at the street scale where climate, urban surfaces and materials, and vegetation converge. This analysis requires a methodology where the thermal buildings response, the variations in the patterns of wind and the interaction of the vegetation are integrated, so a quantitative analysis can help to define the most effective strategies to achieve liveable urban spaces and collaterally, , the improvement of the surrounding buildings energy performance. In this specific scale research is needed and should be customized to every climate, urban condition and nature based strategy. In this context, the main objective for this research was the quantitative assessment of the Green roof impact on the urban microclimate at a neighbourhood scale in summer conditions in Mediterranean- continental climates. For the achievement of this main objective, the following secondary objectives have been set: • Identify the numerical models and calculation tools able to capture the effect of the roof garden on the microclimate. • Identify the enhancing or limiting parameter affecting this effect. • Quantification of the impact of the microclimate created on the energy consumption of buildings surrounding the street canyon analysed. The main hypothesis behind this research and where the above objectives are funded on is as follows: "An extensive roof installed in medium height buildings favours the establishment of microclimates at the pedestrian level and reduces the temperatures in the urban environment where they are located." For the purpose of verifying the above hypothesis and achieving the proposed objectives the following methodology has been followed: - Definition of hypothesis and objectives - Definition of the scope and limitations - Theoretical analysis of parameters affecting gren roof performance - Experimental analysis; - Energy modelling analyisis - Conclusions and future lines of work The search for suitable tools and models for meeting the objectives of this analysis has led to ENVI-met v4 as the most suitable software for this research. ENVI met is a three-dimensional micro-climate model designed to simulate the surface-plant-air interactions in urban environments. Based in the fundamental equations representing, mass, energy and momentum conservation, the software has the capacity of representing the complex phenomena characterizing the microclimate in urban canyons, overcoming the challenge posed by the computing requirements of a full calculus based on finite elements done via traditional computational fluid dynamics tools. Once the analysis tool has been defined, a first set of analysis has been developed to identify the main parameters affecting the green roof influence on the microclimate. In this analysis, two different scenarios are compared. A neighborhood with standard concrete tile roof and the same configuration substituting the concrete tile by an extensive green roof. Once the scenarios have been modeled, different iterations have been run to identify the influence of different wind patterns, solar exposure and roof vegetation type on the microclimate, since those are the most relevant variables affecting urban microclimates. These analysis have been run to check the conditions under which the effects of green roofs get significance. Since ENVI-met V4 is a predictive software, the first step has been the definition of the initial weather conditions which are then used as starting point by the software, which generates its own daily temperature and humidity profile based on the location of the building, geometry, vegetation and the surfaces physical characteristics. The base geometry used for this first analysis has been based on a typical urban layout structure located in Madrid, an orthogonal net with the main streets oriented East-West to ease the analysis of solar radiation in the different points of the model. This layout represents a typical urban neighborhood, with street canyons keeping an aspect ratio between 0.5 and 1 and high sky view factor to ensure correct sun access to the streets and buildings and work with typical wind flow patterns. Finally, the roof vegetation has been defined in terms of foliage density known as Leaf Area Density (LAD) and defined as the total one-sided leaf area per unit of layer volume. This index is the most relevant vegetation characteristic for the purpose of calculating the effect of vegetation on wind and solar radiation as well as the energy consumed during its metabolic processes. The building as usual (BAU) configuring the urban layout has been defined with standard concrete tile roofs, considering 0.3 albedo. Walls have been set with albedo 0.2 (typical brick wall construction) and adiabatic to avoid interference caused by thermal interchanges with the building indoor environment. For the proposed case, the same geometry and building characteristics have been kept. The only change is the roof surface coverage. The gravel on the roof has been changed with an extensive green roof covered with drought tolerant plants, typical in Madrid climate, and characterized by their LAD. The different scenarios analysed are based in the variation of the wind speed and the LAD of the roof. The results have been recorded under different sun exposure conditions. Simulations were run for the typical summer wind patterns, that for Madrid are characterized by South-west winds ranging from 3 to 0 m/s. Simulations were run for 3, 2, 1 and 0 m/s at urban canopy level. Results taken at 1.4 m above the ground showed that the green roof effect was lower with higher wind speeds and in any case the effect of the green roof on the air temperatures exceeded air temperature reductions higher than 1ºC. Relative humidity presented no variations when comparing the different scenarios. For the analysis at 0m/s, ENVI-met generated error and no results were obtained. Different simulations showed that under 0.5 m/s turbulence increased dramatically and the model became unstable and unable to produce reliable results. This is due to the turbulence model embedded in the software which is not valid for low wind speeds (below 1 m/s). The effect of the different foliage densities was also tested in the model. Three different alternatives were compared against the concrete roof: green roof with LAD 0.3 ( typical grass or sedum), 1.5 (typical mixed plants) and 2.5 (tree mass). The results showed very relevant temperature differences between the different LAD alternatives analyzed. Results show temperature variations ranging between 3 and 5 ºC when comparing the standard concrete roof with albedo 0, 3 with the vegetated roof and vegetated mass, showing the relevance of the LAD on the effects of green roofs on microclimate. This matches the data reported in existing literature and empirical studies and confirms the relevance of the LAD in the roof effect on the surrounding microclimate. The results of the theoretical analysis have reached the following initial conclusions related to both, the simulation tool and the model results: • In relation to the tool ENVI-met, some limitations for the analysis have been observed. In first place, the rigid structure of the geometry, the data bases and the grid size, limit the scale and resolution of the analysis not allowing the development of large urban areas. On the other hand the ENVI-met structure enables the development of this type of complex simulation within reasonable times and computational requirements for the purpose of this analysis. Additionally, the model is unable to run simulations at wind speeds lower than 0.5 m/s, and even at this speed, the results are not reliable because the turbulences generated by the model that made impossible to extract clear temperature differences between the concrete and green roof scenarios. Besides the above limitations, the wind patterns and temperature profiles generated by ENVImet are in agreement with previous analysis identifying wind patterns in urban canyons with similar characteristics and aspect ratio. Therefore the software has shown a good capacity for reproducing the wind effects in the street canyons and seems to capture the cooling effect produced by the green roof. • In relation to the model, the results reveals the influence of wind, radiation and LAD on air temperature in urban canyons with aspect ratio comprised between 0.5 and 1. Being the effect of the green roof more noticeable in shaded urban canyons with aspect ratio 1 and wind speeds of 1 m/s. In no case the reductions in air temperature exceeded 1ºC. Once the relevant parameters have been identified, mainly wind speed and LAD, an experimental analysis was conducted to test the results obtained by the model. For this purpose a large green roof was identified, able to represent the urban scale which is the object of the studio. The building identified for this purpose was the terminal 4, parking building of the international Madrid Airport. Even though this is not a standard urban area, the scale and configuration of the space around the building were deemed as acceptable for the analysis. The building is an 800x200 m, 15 m height parking building, surrounded by access paved paths and the terminal building. The parking is enclosed with facades that configure an urban canyon-like space, although the aspect ratio is lower than 0.5 and the wind patterns might differ from the theoretical model run. The building features the largest green roof in Europe, a 12 Ha extensive green roof populated with a mix of herbs and sedum with a LAD of 1.5. The buildings are surrounded by planted areas at the sidewalk and trees shading the main building facades. Green roof performance was evaluated by monitoring temperatures and relative humidity in the canyon in a typical summer day. The day selection was done taking into account meteorological predictions so the weather conditions on the measurement day were as close as possible as the optimal conditions identified in terms of green roof effects on the urban canyon. July 9th 2014 was selected for the measurement campaign because the predictions showed 1 m/s wind speed and sunny sky, which were very similar to the weather conditions where the effect of the green roof was most noticeable in the theory model. Measurements were registered hourly from 9:00am to 19:00 on July 9th 2014. Temperature, relative humidity and wind speed were recorded at 5 different levels, at 1.5, 4.5, 7.5, 11.5 and 16 m above ground and at 0.5 m distance from the building façade. Measurements were taken in three different scenarios, sunny exposure, shaded exposure, and shaded exposure influenced by nearby trees and moist soil. Temperature, relative humidity and wind speed were registered using a TESTO 410-2 anemometer, with 0.1ºC resolution for temperature, 0.1 m/s resolution for wind speed and 0.1 % for relative humidity. Surface temperatures were registered using an infrared camera FLIR E4, with temperature resolution 0.15ºC. Minimal distance to surface of 0.5 m and Tª measurements range from -20ºC and 250ºC. The temperature profiles measured on the site showed the influence of solar exposure on the temperature variations along the day, as well as the influence of the heat irradiated by the building surfaces which had been exposed to the sun radiation and those influenced by the moist soft areas around the building. After the measurements were taken, the following simulations were conducted to evaluate the impact of the green roof on the microclimate: a. Standard roof: T4 building assuming a concrete tile roof with albedo 0.3. b. Green roof: T4 building assuming an extensive green roof with low LAD value (0.5)-Simple Sedum roof. c. Green roof: T4 building assuming an extensive green roof with high LAD value 1.5- Lucerne and grasses d. Green roof plus street level vegetation: T4 Building, LAD 1.5 (Lucerne), including the existing trees at street level. This scenario represents the current conditions of the building. The urban canopy wind was set as 1 m/s, the wind speed register at that level during the measurement campaign. This wind speed remained constant over the whole campaign. Under the above conditions, the results of the models show a moderate effect of green roofs on the surrounding microclimate ranging from 1ºC to 2ºC, but a larger contribution when combining it with vegetation at pedestrian level, where 4ºC temperature reductions are reached. Relative humidity remained constant. Measured temperatures and relative humidity were compared to model results, showing a close match in the profiles defined in both cases and the good capacity of ENVI met to capture the impact of the green roof in this analysis. The largest differences were registered in the areas close to the top areas of the facades which were more exposed to sun radiation and also near to the soil level. These differences might be caused by differences between the materials properties included in the model (which were limited by the data available in the software database) and those in the real building. An important observation derived from this study is the contribution of moist soil to the green roof effect on air temperatures. In the green roof scenario with surrounding trees, the effect of the moist soil contributes to raise the temperature reductions at 4.5ºC. A final analysis was conducted after extracting the hourly temperature profile in the street canyon influenced by the effect of green roofs and trees. An energy model was run on the building assuming it was a conventional enclosed building. Energy demand reductions were registered in the building reaching up to 14% reductions at the peak hour. The main conclusion of this study is the potential of the green roofs as a strategy for reducing air temperatures and energy consumption in the buildings, although this effect can be limited by the influence of high speed winds. This effect can be enhanced its combination with urban forests and even more if soft moist pavements are included in the urban canyon morphology, becoming a potential strategy for adapting urban ecosystems to the increasing temperature effect derived from climate change.

Value Creation in Family Firms: A Model of Fit

We propose a framework describing how family ownership can create or destroy value depending on the goals, resources, and governance of the family firm, which are each influenced by the family owners. Taking a contingency perspective, we suggest that a fit is required for all three elements – family- influenced goals, resources, and governance – for the family firm to flourish over generations. We conclude with a suggested research agenda indicating research opportunities at the nexus of these identified elements. Further we provide some guiding questions for practitioners that might stimulate fruitful discussions among family firm owners and managers about how to realize ‘‘fit.’’

Towards definition of the global biotechnology value chain using cases from Australian biotechnology SMEs

The generic pharmaceutical value chain model has been employed to describe both the global pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries till now. This research investigates the organisational value chain in Australian biotechnology companies in order to assess the appropriateness of the pharmaceutical value chain to small-and medium-sized biotechnology companies. The main theme of the research is: Can a generic model of the organisational value chain be defined for the biotechnology industry? Emanating from the literature, two research propositions were developed. RP1: there are eight major definable elements/activities of the organisational value chain for the biotechnology industry. RP2: Coverage of the elements in the biotechnology value chain ranges from focused to broad. A multiple case study methodology was used to explore these propositions. To develop a number of case studies, data was collected from senior managers of small and medium Australian biotechnology companies using an interview instrument, as well as from publicly available documentation and through observation. The results were analysed using cross-case comparisons. The results showed that an aggregation of the value chains of each organisation can be reduced to these eight definable elements that constitute the biotechnology value chain: basic research, applied research, development, verification and validation, prototype development, clinical trials, manufacturing and marketing. However, the findings also indicate that these major elements of the value chain need to be further reduced into sub-activities or sub-tasks to cater for the unique differences between biotechnology companies. Generally, the findings were consistent with the literature. However, a wider sampling, including international biotechnology organisations should be studied. The major contribution of this research is in the development of a value chain model, including general sub-tasks, for the Australian biotechnology industry.

Quantum dynamics of a model for two Josephson-coupled Bose-Einstein condensates

In this work, we investigate the quantum dynamics of a model for two singlemode Bose-Einstein condensates which are coupled via Josephson tunnelling. Using direct numerical diagonalization of the Hamiltonian, we compute the time evolution of the expectation value for the relative particle number across a wide range of couplings. Our analysis shows that the system exhibits rich and complex behaviours varying between harmonic and non-harmonic oscillations, particularly around the threshold coupling between the delocalized and selftrapping phases. We show that these behaviours are dependent on both the initial state of the system and regime of the coupling. In addition, a study of the dynamics for the variance of the relative particle number expectation and the entanglement for different initial states is presented in detail.

Does customer satisfaction lead to improved brand equity? An empirical examination of two categories of retail brands

Purpose – The objective of the present research is to examine the relationship between consumers' satisfaction with a retailer and the equity they associate with the retail brand. Design/methodology/approach – Retail brand equity is conceptualized as a four-dimensional construct comprising: retailer awareness, retailer associations, retailer perceived quality, and retailer loyalty. Then the associative network memory model is applied from cognitive psychology to the specific context of the relationships between customer satisfaction and consumer-based retailer equity. A survey was undertaken using a convenience sample of shopping mall consumers in an Australian state capital city. The questionnaire used to collect data included an experimental design such that two categories of retailers were included in the study: department stores and specialty stores, with three retailers representing each category. The relationship between consumer-based retailer equity and customer satisfaction was examined using multivariate analysis of variance. Findings – Results indicate that retail brand equity varies with customer satisfaction. For department stores, each consumer-based retailer equity dimension varied according to customer satisfaction with the retailer. However, for specialty stores, only three of the consumer-based retailer equity dimensions, namely retailer awareness, retailer associations and retailer perceived quality, varied according to customer satisfaction level with the retailer. Originality/value – The principal contribution of the present research is that it demonstrates empirically a positive relationship between customer satisfaction and an intangible asset such as retailer equity.

Quantum entanglement in the two-impurity Kondo model

In order to quantify quantum entanglement in two-impurity Kondo systems, we calculate the concurrence, negativity, and von Neumann entropy. The entanglement of the two Kondo impurities is shown to be determined by two competing many-body effects, namely the Kondo effect and the Ruderman-Kittel-Kasuya-Yosida (RKKY) interaction, I. Due to the spin-rotational invariance of the ground state, the concurrence and negativity are uniquely determined by the spin-spin correlation between the impurities. It is found that there exists a critical minimum value of the antiferromagnetic correlation between the impurity spins which is necessary for entanglement of the two impurity spins. The critical value is discussed in relation with the unstable fixed point in the two-impurity Kondo problem. Specifically, at the fixed point there is no entanglement between the impurity spins. Entanglement will only be created [and quantum information processing (QIP) will only be possible] if the RKKY interaction exchange energy, I, is at least several times larger than the Kondo temperature, T-K. Quantitative criteria for QIP are given in terms of the impurity spin-spin correlation.

The impact of learning outcomes in business education: assessing value, relevance and graduate ability in a multi-country study of employers and business graduates

This paper discusses critical findings from a two-year EU-funded research project involving four European countries: Austria, England, Slovenia and Romania. The project had two primary aims. The first of these was to develop a systematic procedure for assessing the balance between learning outcomes acquired in education and the specific needs of the labour market. The second aim was to develop and test a set of meta-level quality indicators aimed at evaluating the linkages between education and employment. The project was distinctive in that it combined different partners from Higher Education, Vocational Training, Industry and Quality Assurance. One of the key emergent themes identified in exploratory interviews was that employers and recent business graduates in all four countries want a well-rounded education which delivers a broad foundation of key business knowledge across the various disciplines. Both groups also identified the need for personal development in critical skills and competencies. Following the exploratory study, a questionnaire was designed to address five functional business areas, as well as a cluster of 8 business competencies. Within the survey, questions relating to the meta-level quality indicators assessed the impact of these learning outcomes on the workplace, in terms of the following: 1) value, 2) relevance and 3) graduate ability. This paper provides an overview of the study findings from a sample of 900 business graduates and employers. Two theoretical models are proposed as tools for predicting satisfaction with work performance and satisfaction with business education. The implications of the study findings for education, employment and European public policy are discussed.

Langevin dynamics, large deviations and instantons for the quasi-geostrophic model and two-dimensional Euler equations

We investigate a class of simple models for Langevin dynamics of turbulent flows, including the one-layer quasi-geostrophic equation and the two-dimensional Euler equations. Starting from a path integral representation of the transition probability, we compute the most probable fluctuation paths from one attractor to any state within its basin of attraction. We prove that such fluctuation paths are the time reversed trajectories of the relaxation paths for a corresponding dual dynamics, which are also within the framework of quasi-geostrophic Langevin dynamics. Cases with or without detailed balance are studied. We discuss a specific example for which the stationary measure displays either a second order (continuous) or a first order (discontinuous) phase transition and a tricritical point. In situations where a first order phase transition is observed, the dynamics are bistable. Then, the transition paths between two coexisting attractors are instantons (fluctuation paths from an attractor to a saddle), which are related to the relaxation paths of the corresponding dual dynamics. For this example, we show how one can analytically determine the instantons and compute the transition probabilities for rare transitions between two attractors.

How can economic sociology help business relationship management?

Purpose – By analyzing organizations as social actors and business relationships as social relationships, sociology can improve business relationship management. This paper aims to explore the issues involved. Design/methodology/approach – A business relationship is an interactive exchange between two organizations embedded in a network of business connections. The paper reviews theories of social actions and social actors and the concepts of economic field and embeddedness to illustrate some social dimensions of business relationships. Findings – Social action and social actor theories emphasize that co-operation is always encumbered with conflicts, that consciousness about the relationship is fundamental for both strongly and weakly structured actors, and that actors (people involved in a business relationship) always have some freedom of manoeuvre. The concept of economic field underscores the specificity of each business relationship and the critical need for concrete analysis. The concept of embeddedness highlights that no business relationship is possible without personal bonds. Research limitations/implications – These are the first results of a deeper and broader research directed towards a conceptual model of business relationship management. Practical implications – The paper can help managers to analyze more deeply the social dimensions of business relations with both suppliers and buyers. Consciousness, the ongoing presence of conflicts, the unavoidable role of personal bonds, and interactivity are always relevant in business relationship management. Originality/value – The paper integrates sociological and business marketing approaches. It applies essential sociological theories and concepts to business relationship management.

Vállalati versenyképesség – a vevői érték és a képességalapú megközelítés összekapcsolása (Competitiveness of firms – combining the customer value and the capability based approach)

A cikk központi kérdése a vállalati versenyképesség. Két meghatározó menedzsmentmegközelítés – a vevői érték és az erőforrás-, képességalapú stratégiai menedzsment – fogalmi rendszerére, illetve koncepcióira alapozva a szerzők kialakítottak és a "Versenyben a világgal 2004–2006 – gazdasági versenyképességünk vállalati nézőpontból" című kutatás adatbázisát használva teszteltek egy a vállalati versenyképesség belső struktúrájára rávilágító elméleti modellt. A modell empirikus tesztelésének eredménye szerint a kialakított koncepció a vállalati versenyképesség elemzésének hasznos eszköze, mely alkalmas arra, hogy a vizsgált vállalatok esetében igazolja, vagy éppen megcáfolja a meghatározott, ún. összehangolt kompetenciák meglétét. ________The main issue of this article is the competitiveness of firms. Based on conceptual system and concepts of two determinant management approaches – the customer value and the resource and capability based strategic management – the authors have developed and tested a theoretical model of the inside structure of the competitiveness of firms using the database of Competing with the World 2004-2006 – the competitiveness of the Hungarian economy from enterprise point of view. According to the result of the empiric test of the model the developed concept has been a profitable tool of the analysis of the enterprise competitiveness and it has been suited for confirming or confuting determinated so called aligned competencies being in the case of examined firms.

Assessing the effectiveness of two-year banking and insurance technology programs of junior colleges in Taiwan, R.O.C.: An application of the Context Input Process Product (CIPP) evaluation model

The purpose of this descriptive study was to evaluate the banking and insurance technology curriculum at ten junior colleges in Taiwan. The study focused on curriculum, curriculum materials, instruction, support services, student achievement and job performance. Data was collected from a diverse sample of faculty, students, alumni, and employers. ^ Questionnaires on the evaluation of curriculum at technical junior colleges were developed for use in this specific case. Data were collected from the sample described above and analyzed utilizing ANOVA, T-Tests and crosstabulations. Findings are presented which indicate that there is room for improvement in terms of meeting individual students' needs. ^ Using Stufflebeam's CIPP model for curriculum evaluation it was determined that the curriculum was adequate in terms of the knowledge and skills imparted to students. However, students were dissatisfied with the rigidity of the curriculum and the lack of opportunity to satisfy the individual needs of students. Employers were satisfied with both the academic preparation of students and their on the job performance. ^ In sum, the curriculum of the two-year banking and insurance technology programs of junior college in Taiwan was shown to have served adequately preparing a work force to enter businesses. It is now time to look toward the future and adapt the curriculum and instruction for the future needs of the ever evolving high-tech society. ^

The effect of the business cycle on the performance of socially responsible equity mutual funds

The current study applies a two-state switching regression model to examine the behavior of a hypothetical portfolio of ten socially responsible (SRI) equity mutual funds during the expansion and contraction phases of US business cycles between April 1991 and June 2009, based on the Carhart four-factor model, using monthly data. The model identified a business cycle effect on the performance of SRI equity mutual funds. Fund returns were less volatile during expansion/peaks than during contraction/troughs, as indicated by the standard deviation of returns. During contraction/troughs, fund excess returns were explained by the differential in returns between small and large companies, the difference between the returns on stocks trading at high and low Book-to-Market Value, the market excess return over the risk-free rate, and fund objective. During contraction/troughs, smaller companies offered higher returns than larger companies (ci = 0.26, p = 0.01), undervalued stocks out-performed high growth stocks (h i = 0.39, p <0.0001), and funds with growth objectives out-performed funds with other objectives (oi = 0.01, p = 0.02). The hypothetical SRI portfolio was less risky than the market (bi = 0.74, p <0.0001). During expansion/peaks, fund excess returns were explained by the market excess return over the risk-free rate, and fund objective. Funds with other objectives, such as balanced funds and income funds out-performed funds with growth objectives (oi = −0.01, p = 0.03). The hypothetical SRI portfolio exhibited similar risk as the market (bi = 0.93, p <0.0001). The SRI investor adds a third criterion to the risk and return trade-off of traditional portfolio theory. This constraint is social performance. The research suggests that managers of SRI equity mutual funds may diminish value by using social and ethical criteria to select stocks, but add value by superior stock selection. The result is that the performance of SRI mutual funds is very similar to that of the market. There was no difference in the value added among secular SRI, religious SRI, and vice screens.

The inclusion of differentially assessed lands in urban growth model calibration: a comparison of two approaches using SLEUTH

This research sought to understand the role that differentially assessed lands (lands in the United States given tax breaks in return for their guarantee to remain in agriculture) play in influencing urban growth. Our method was to calibrate the SLEUTH urban growth model under two different conditions. The first used an excluded layer that ignored such lands, effectively rendering them available for development. The second treated those lands as totally excluded from development. Our hypothesis was that excluding those lands would yield better metrics of fit with past data. Our results validate our hypothesis since two different metrics that evaluate goodness of fit both yielded higher values when differentially assessed lands are treated as excluded. This suggests that, at least in our study area, differential assessment, which protects farm and ranch lands for tenuous periods of time, has indeed allowed farmland to resist urban development. Including differentially assessed lands also yielded very different calibrated coefficients of growth as the model tried to account for the same growth patterns over two very different excluded areas. Excluded layer design can greatly affect model behavior. Since differentially assessed lands are quite common through the United States and are often ignored in urban growth modeling, the findings of this research can assist other urban growth modelers in designing excluded layers that result in more accurate model calibration and thus forecasting.

The difference model with guessing explains interval bias in two-alternative forced- chocice detection procedures

The standard difference model of two-alternative forced-choice (2AFC) tasks implies that performance should be the same when the target is presented in the first or the second interval. Empirical data often show “interval bias” in that percentage correct differs significantly when the signal is presented in the first or the second interval. We present an extension of the standard difference model that accounts for interval bias by incorporating an indifference zone around the null value of the decision variable. Analytical predictions are derived which reveal how interval bias may occur when data generated by the guessing model are analyzed as prescribed by the standard difference model. Parameter estimation methods and goodness-of-fit testing approaches for the guessing model are also developed and presented. A simulation study is included whose results show that the parameters of the guessing model can be estimated accurately. Finally, the guessing model is tested empirically in a 2AFC detection procedure in which guesses were explicitly recorded. The results support the guessing model and indicate that interval bias is not observed when guesses are separated out.

A value-oriented model for managing service supply chains

Service supply chain (SSC) has attracted more and more attention from academia and industry. Although there exists extensive product-based supply chain management models and methods, they are not applicable to the SSC as the differences between service and product. Besides, the existing supply chain management models and methods possess some common deficiencies. Because of the above reasons, this paper develops a novel value-oriented model for the management of SSC using the modeling methods of E3-value and Use Case Maps (UCMs). This model can not only resolve the problems of applicability and effectiveness of the existing supply chain management models and methods, but also answer the questions of ‘why the management model is this?’ and ‘how to quantify the potential profitability of the supply chains?’. Meanwhile, the service business processes of SSC system can be established using its logic procedure. In addition, the model can also determine the value and benefits distribution of the entire service value chain and optimize the operations management performance of the service supply.