Hydrogeology and hydrochemistry of the aquifer systems of Kuttanad area, Kerala: Their role in understanding the evolution of groundwaters

This is an attempt to understand the important factors that control the occurrence, development and hydrochemical evolution of groundwater resources in sedimentary multi aquifer systems. The primary objective of this work is an integrated study of the hydrogeology and hydrochemistry with a view to elucidate the hydrochemical evolution of groundwater resources in the aquifer systems. The study is taken up in a typical coastal sedimentary aquifer system evolved under fluvio-marine environment in the coastal area of Kerala, known as the Kuttanad. The present study has been carried out to understand the aquifer systems, their inter relationships and evolution in the Kuttanad area of Kerala. The multi aquifer systems in the Kuttanad basin were formed from the sediments deposited under fluvio-marine and fluvial depositional environments and the marine transgressions and regressions in the geological past and palaeo climatic conditions influenced the hydrochemical environment in these aquifers. The evolution of groundwater and the hydrochemical processes involved in the formation of the present day water quality are elucidated from hydrochemical studies and the information derived from the aquifer geometry and hydraulic properties. Kuttanad area comprises of three types of aquifer systems namely phreatic aquifer underlain by Recent confined aquifer followed by Tertiary confined aquifers. These systems were formed by the deposition of sediments under fluvio-marine and fluvial environment. The study of the hydrochemical and hydraulic properties of the three aquifer systems proved that these three systems are separate entities. The phreatic aquifers in the area have low hydraulic gradients and high rejected recharge. The Recent confined aquifer has very poor hydraulic characteristics and recharge to this aquifer is very low. The Tertiary aquifer system is the most potential fresh water aquifer system in the area and the groundwater flow in the aquifer is converging towards the central part of the study area (Alleppey town) due to large scale pumping of water for water supply from this aquifer system. Mixing of waters and anthropogenic interferences are the dominant processes modifying the hydrochemistry in phreatic aquifers. Whereas, leaching of salts and cation exchange are the dominant processes modifying the hydrochemistry of groundwater in the confined aquifer system of Recent alluvium. Two significant chemical reactions modifying the hydrochemistry in the Recent aquifers are oxidation of iron in ferruginous clays which contributes hydrogen ions and the decomposition of organic matter in the aquifer system which consumes hydrogen ions. The hydrochemical environment is entirely different in the Tertiary aquifers as the groundwater in this aquifer system are palaeo waters evolved during various marine transgressions and regressions and these waters are being modified by processes of leaching of salts, cation exchange and chemical reactions under strong reducing environment. It is proved that the salinity observed in the groundwaters of Tertiary aquifers are not due to seawater mixing or intrusion, but due to dissolution of salts from the clay formations and ion exchange processes. Fluoride contamination in this aquifer system lacks a regional pattern and is more or less site specific in natureThe lowering of piezometric heads in the Tertiary aquifer system has developed as consequence of large scale pumping over a long period. Hence, puping from this aquifer system is to be regulated as a groundwater management strategy. Pumping from the Tertiary aquifers with high capacity pumps leads to well failures and mixing of saline water from the brackish zones. Such mixing zones are noticed from the hydrochemical studies. This is the major aquifer contamination in the Tertiary aquifer system which requires immediate attention. Usage of pumps above 10 HP capacities in wells taping Tertiary aquifers should be discouraged for sustainable development of these aquifers. The recharge areas need to be identified precisely for recharging the aquifer systems throughartificial means.

Conceptos y métodos fundamentales en ecología del paisaje (landscape ecology). Una interpretación desde la geografía

L'ecologia del paisatge neix en una vinculació ben estreta amb la geografia i viu un espectacular desenvolupament a partir de la segona meitat del segle XX. En l’actualitat, és una perspectiva científica transdisciplinària, consolidada i reconeguda, que intenta comprendre i ajudar a resoldre els principals reptes ambientals contemporanis pel que fa a la conservació del patrimoni natural i cultural. En aquestes pàgines, es repassa de forma sintètica els conceptes clau i els mètodes, eminentment quantitatius, emprats per l’ecologia del paisatge per analitzar la situació i l’evolució dels paisatges

Integrating socio-economics and ecology: a taxonomy of quantitative methods and a review of their use in agro-ecology

Answering many of the critical questions in conservation, development and environmental management requires integrating the social and natural sciences. However, understanding the array of available quantitative methods and their associated terminology presents a major barrier to successful collaboration. We provide an overview of quantitative socio-economic methods that distils their complexity into a simple taxonomy. We outline how each has been used in conjunction with ecological models to address questions relating to the management of socio-ecological systems. We review the application of social and ecological quantitative concepts to agro-ecology and classify the approaches used to integrate the two disciplines. Our review included all published integrated models from 2003 to 2008 in 27 journals that publish agricultural modelling research. Although our focus is on agro-ecology, many of the results are broadly applicable to other fields involving an interaction between human activities and ecology. We found 36 papers that integrated social and ecological concepts in a quantitative model. Four different approaches to integration were used, depending on the scale at which human welfare was quantified. Most models viewed humans as pure profit maximizers, both when calculating welfare and predicting behaviour. Synthesis and applications. We reached two main conclusions based on our taxonomy and review. The first is that quantitative methods that extend predictions of behaviour and measurements of welfare beyond a simple market value basis are underutilized by integrated models. The second is that the accuracy of prediction for integrated models remains largely unquantified. Addressing both problems requires researchers to reach a common understanding of modelling goals and data requirements during the early stages of a project.

Characterisation of an amphioxus Fringe gene and the evolution of the vertebrate segmentation clock

In mouse and chick embryos, cyclic expression of lunatic fringe has an important role in the regulation of mesoderm segmentation. We have isolated a Fringe gene from the protochordate amphioxus. Amphioxus is the closest living relative of the vertebrates, and has mesoderm that is definitively segmented in a manner that is similar to, and probably homologous with, that of vertebrates. AmphiFringe is placed basal to vertebrate Fringe genes in molecular phylogenetic analyses, indicating that the duplications that formed radical-, manic- and lunatic fringe are specific to the vertebrate lineage. AmphiFringe expression was detected in the anterior neural plate of early neurulae, where it resolved into a series of segmental patches by the mid-neurulae stage. No AmphiFringe transcripts were detected in the mesoderm. Based on these observations, we propose a model depicting a successive recruitment of Fringe in the maintenance then regulation of segmentation during vertebrate evolution.

Comparisons of host mitochondrial, nuclear and endosymbiont bacterial genes reveal cryptic fig wasp species and the effects of Wolbachia on host mtDNA evolution and diversity

Background Figs and fig-pollinating wasp species usually display a highly specific one-to-one association. However, more and more studies have revealed that the "one-to-one" rule has been broken. Co-pollinators have been reported, but we do not yet know how they evolve. They may evolve from insect speciation induced or facilitated by Wolbachia which can manipulate host reproduction and induce reproductive isolation. In addition, Wolbachia can affect host mitochondrial DNA evolution, because of the linkage between Wolbachia and associated mitochondrial haplotypes, and thus confound host phylogeny based on mtDNA. Previous research has shown that fig wasps have the highest incidence of Wolbachia infection in all insect taxa, and Wolbachia may have great influence on fig wasp biology. Therefore, we look forward to understanding the influence of Wolbachia on mitochondrial DNA evolution and speciation in fig wasps. Results We surveyed 76 pollinator wasp specimens from nine Ficus microcarpa trees each growing at a different location in Hainan and Fujian Provinces, China. We found that all wasps were morphologically identified as Eupristina verticillata, but diverged into three clades with 4.22-5.28% mtDNA divergence and 2.29-20.72% nuclear gene divergence. We also found very strong concordance between E. verticillata clades and Wolbachia infection status, and the predicted effects of Wolbachia on both mtDNA diversity and evolution by decreasing mitochondrial haplotypes. Conclusions Our study reveals that the pollinating wasp E. verticillata on F. microcarpa has diverged into three cryptic species, and Wolbachia may have a role in this divergence. The results also indicate that Wolbachia strains infecting E. verticillata have likely resulted in selective sweeps on host mitochondrial DNA.

Pollination ecology in the 21st century: key questions for future research

To inspire new ideas in research on pollination ecology, we list the most important unanswered questions in the field. This list was drawn up by contacting 170 scientists from different areas of pollination ecology and asking them to contribute their opinion on the greatest knowledge gaps that need to be addressed. Almost 40% of them took part in our email poll and we received more than 650 questions and comments, which we classified into different categories representing various aspects of pollination research. The original questions were merged and synthesised, and a final vote and ranking led to the resultant list. The categories cover plant sexual reproduction, pollen and stigma biology, abiotic pollination, evolution of animal-mediated pollination, interactions of pollinators and floral antagonists, pollinator behaviour, taxonomy, plant-pollinator assemblages, geographical trends in diversity, drivers of pollinator loss, ecosystem services, management of pollination, and conservation issues such as the implementation of pollinator conservation. We focused on questions that were of a broad scope rather than case-specific; thus, addressing some questions may not be feasible within single research projects but constitute a general guide for future directions. With this compilation we hope to raise awareness of pollination-related topics not only among researchers but also among non-specialists including policy makers, funding agencies and the public at large.

Adaptive evolution of four microcephaly genes and the evolution of brain size in anthropoid primates

The anatomical basis and adaptive function of the expansion in primate brain size have long been studied; however, we are only beginning to understand the genetic basis of these evolutionary changes. Genes linked to human primary microcephaly have received much attention as they have accelerated evolutionary rates along lineages leading to humans. However, these studies focus narrowly on apes, and the link between microcephaly gene evolution and brain evolution is disputed. We analyzed the molecular evolution of four genes associated with microcephaly (ASPM, CDK5RAP2, CENPJ, MCPH1) across 21 species representing all major clades of anthropoid primates. Contrary to prevailing assumptions, positive selection was not limited to or intensified along the lineage leading to humans. In fact we show that all four loci were subject to positive selection across the anthropoid primate phylogeny. We developed clearly defined hypotheses to explicitly test if selection on these loci was associated with the evolution of brain size. We found positive relationships between both CDK5RAP2 and ASPM and neonatal brain mass and somewhat weaker relationships between these genes and adult brain size. In contrast, there is no evidence linking CENPJ and MCPH1 to brain size evolution. The stronger association of ASPM and CDK5RAP2 evolution with neonatal brain size than with adult brain size is consistent with these loci having a direct effect on prenatal neuronal proliferation. These results suggest that primate brain size may have at least a partially conserved genetic basis. Our results contradict a previous study that linked adaptive evolution of ASPM to changes in relative cortex size; however, our analysis indicates that this conclusion is not robust. Our finding that the coding regions of two widely expressed loci has experienced pervasive positive selection in relation to a complex, quantitative developmental phenotype provides a notable counterexample to the commonly asserted hypothesis that cisregulatory regions play a dominant role in phenotypic evolution. Key words: ASPM, MCPH1, CDK5RAP2, CENPJ, brain, neurogenesis, primates.

Climate change and hydrology

This book chapter summarises the evolution of research into climate change and hydrology at the NERC Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Wallingford.

Head shape evolution in Tropidurinae lizards: does locomotion constrain diet?

Different components of complex integrated systems may be specialized for different functions, and thus the selective pressures acting on the system as a whole may be conflicting and can ultimately constrain organismal performance and evolution. The vertebrate cranial system is one of the most striking examples of a complex system with several possible functions, being associated to activities as different as locomotion, prey capture, display and defensive behaviours. Therefore, selective pressures on the cranial system as a whole are possibly complex and may be conflicting. The present study focuses on the influence of potentially conflicting selective pressures (diet vs. locomotion) on the evolution of head shape in Tropidurinae lizards. For example, the expected adaptations leading to flat heads and bodies in species living on vertical structures may conflict with the need for improved bite performance associated with the inclusion of hard or tough prey into the diet, a common phenomenon in Tropidurinae lizards. Body size and six variables describing head shape were quantified in preserved specimens of 23 species, and information on diet and substrate usage was obtained from the literature. No phylogenetic signal was observed in the morphological data at any branch length tested, suggesting adaptive evolution of head shape in Tropidurinae. This pattern was confirmed by both factor analysis and independent contrast analysis, which suggested adaptive co-variation between the head shape and the inclusion of hard prey into the diet. In contrast to our expectations, habitat use did not constrain or drive head shape evolution in the group.

Molecular phylogenetics and character evolution of the ""sacaca"" clade: Novel relationships of Croton section Cleodora (Euphorbiaceae)

Phylogenetic relationships of Croton section Cleodora (Klotzsch) Baill. were evaluated using the nuclear ribosomal ITS and the chloroplast trnl-F and trnH-psbA regions. Our results show a strongly supported clade containing most previously recognized section Cleodora species, plus some other species morphologically similar to them. Two morphological synapomorphies that support section Cleodora as a clade include pistillate flowers in which the sepals overlap to some degree, and styles that are connate at the base to varying degrees. The evolution of vegetative and floral characters that have previously been relied on for taxonomic decisions within this group are evaluated in light of the phylogenetic hypotheses. Within section Cleodora there are two well-supported clades, which are proposed here as subsections (subsection Sphaerogyni and subsection Spruceani). The resulting phylogenetic hypothesis identifies the closest relatives of the medicinally important and essential oil-rich Croton cajucara Benth. as candidates for future screening in phytochemical and pharmacological studies. (C) 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

NAD Biosynthesis Evolution in Bacteria: Lateral Gene Transfer of Kynurenine Pathway in Xanthomonadales and Flavobacteriales

The biosynthesis of quinolinate, the de novo precursor of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), may be performed by two distinct pathways, namely, the bacterial aspartate (aspartate-to-quinolinate) and the eukaryotic kynurenine (tryptophan-to-quinolinate). Even though the separation into eukaryotic and bacterial routes is long established, recent genomic surveys have challenged this view, because certain bacterial species also carry the genes for the kynurenine pathway. In this work, both quinolinate biosynthetic pathways were investigated in the Bacteria clade and with special attention to Xanthomonadales and Bacteroidetes, from an evolutionary viewpoint. Genomic screening has revealed that a small number of bacterial species possess some of the genes for the kynurenine pathway, which is complete in the genus Xanthomonas and in the order Flavobacteriales, where the aspartate pathway is absent. The opposite pattern (presence of the aspartate pathway and absence of the kynurenine pathway) in close relatives (Xylella ssp. and the order Bacteroidales, respectively) points to the idea of a recent acquisition of the kynurenine pathway through lateral gene transfer in these bacterial groups. In fact, sequence similarity comparison and phylogenetic reconstruction both suggest that at least part of the genes of the kynurenine pathway in Xanthomonas and Flavobacteriales is shared by eukaryotes. These results reinforce the idea of the role that lateral gene transfer plays in the configuration of bacterial genomes, thereby providing alternative metabolic pathways, even with the replacement of primary and essential cell functions, as exemplified by NAD biosynthesis.

Phylogeographical, ecological and biological patterns shown by nuclear (ssrRNA and gGAPDH) and mitochondrial (Cyt b) genes of trypanosomes of the subgenus Schizotrypanum parasitic in Brazilian bats

The genetic diversity and phylogeographical patterns of Trypanosoma species that infect Brazilian bats were evaluated by examining 1043 bats from 63 species of seven families captured in Amazonia, the Pantanal, Cerrado and the Atlantic Forest biomes of Brazil. The prevalence of trypanosonne-infected bats, as estimated by haemoculture, was 12.9%, resulting in 77 Cultures of isolates, most morphologically identified as Trypanosoma cf. cruzi, classified by barcoding using partial sequences from ssrRNA gene into the subgenus Schizotrypanum and identified as T. cruzi (15), T cruzi marinkellei (37) or T. cf. dionisii (25). Phylogenetic analyses using nuclear ssrRNA, glycosomal glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (gGAPDH) and mitochondrial cytochrome b (Cyt b) gene sequences generated three clades, which clustered together forming the subgenus Schizotrypanum. In addition to vector association, bat trypanosomes were related by the evolutionary history, ecology and phylogeography of the bats. Tryponosoma cf. dionisii trypanosomes (32.4%) infected 12 species from four bat families captured in all biomes, from North to South Brazil, and clustered with T. dionisii from Europe despite being separated by some genetic distance. Trypanosoma cruzi marinkellei (49.3%) was restricted to phyllostomid bats from Amazonia to the Pantanal (North to Central). Trypanosoma cruzi (18.2%) was found mainly in vespertilionid and phyllostomid bats from the Pantanal/Cerrado and the Atlantic Forest (Central to Southeast), with a few isolates from Amazonia. (C) 2009 Australian Society for Parasitology Inc. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The Pollination Biology and Mating System of a Peripheral Population of Witheringia solanacea (Solanaceae)

Pollinator visitation rates over the life of a flower are determined by pollinator abundance and floral longevity. If flowers are not visited frequently enough, pollen limitation may occur, favoring the evolution of self-compatibility (SC). In plant species with varying SC levels, central populations often are self-incompatible (SI) and peripheral populations are SC. Witheringia solanacea (Solanaceae) is a species that follows this trend with the exception of one population in the Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve, which is peripheral yet SI. I investigated this population using multiple techniques including floral bagging, pollinator observations, microsatellite analysis, and floral longevity manipulations. My results confirmed the self-incompatibility of the Monteverde population and indicated low but perhaps adequate rates of pollinator visitation per flower per hour. I found reduced genetic diversity at Monteverde and gene flow occurring unidirectionally from San Luis (a central population) to Monteverde. In the greenhouse, there was more of an effect of male than female function on floral longevity, but the largest differences were environmental. Flowers stayed open substantially longer when cool, cloudy weather was simulated and shorter when conditions were hot and sunny. The results indicate that the Monteverde population of W. solanacea is SI because 1) it is unable to maximize its fitness due to gene flow from San Luis and its relatively recent colonization of the area and 2) pollen limitation may not be severe because of supplemental pollinator availability from other Witheringia species in the area and increased floral longevities due to cool and cloudy conditions.

Paracoccidioides brasiliensis: phylogenetic and ecological aspects

The knowledge on the biological aspects of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis has evolved greatly since the first description of the disease in 1908. From the pioneers, who were able to clearly demonstrate the fungal nature of the agent, to the recent genomic era, important advances have been achieved. P. brasiliensis is a true fungus, belonging to the Ascomycetous Division, although its sexual phase has not been demonstrated morphologically. A better understanding of the fundamental aspects of the agent, especially its phylogeny and evolutionary history, will provide us with valuable insights allowing a better comprehension of the disease and our capacity to deal with the problem. Concerning the fungus's ecology, although some progress had been observed, the ecological niche of the pathogen has not been determined yet. The aim of the present review is to focus on the biological aspects of P. brasiliensis from an evolutionary point of view, addressing the fungus's phylogenetic aspects, in those special points that might be relevant for the pathogen/host interactions, the biological forces that have been acting on its origin and maintenance of virulence, as well as in determining the fungus's ecology and epidemiology.

Molecular insights on the evolution of the lateral and head lantern luciferases and bioluminescence colors in Mastinocerini railroad-worms (Coleoptera: Phengodidae)

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)