Política(s) de saúde no trabalho : um inquérito sociológico às empresas portuguesas

Resumo Política(s) de saúde no trabalho: um inquérito sociológico às empresas portuguesas A literatura portuguesa sobre políticas, programas e actividades de Segurança, Higiene e Saúde no Trabalho (abreviadamente, SH&ST) é ainda escassa. Com este projecto de investigação pretende-se (i) colmatar essa lacuna, (ii) melhorar o conhecimento dos sistemas de gestão da saúde e segurança no trabalho e (iii) contribuir para a protecção e a promoção da saúde dos trabalhadores. Foi construída uma tipologia com cinco grupos principais de políticas, programas e actividades: A (Higiene & Segurança no Trabalho / Melhoria do ambiente físico de trabalho); B (Avaliação de saúde / Vigilância médica / Prestação de cuidados de saúde); C (Prevenção de comportamentos de risco/ Promoção de estilos de vida saudáveis); D (Intervenções a nível organizacional / Melhoria do ambiente psicossocial de trabalho); E (Actividades e programas sociais e de bem-estar). Havia uma lista de mais de 60 actividades possíveis, correspondendo a um índice de realização de 100%. Foi concebido e desenhado, para ser auto-administrado, um questionário sobre Política de Saúde no Local de Trabalho. Foram efectuados dois mailings, e um follow-up telefónico. O trabalho de campo decorreu entre a primavera de 1997 e o verão de 1998. A amostra (n=259) é considerada representativa das duas mil maiores empresas do país. Uma em cada quatro é uma multinacional. A taxa de sindicalização rondava os 30% da população trabalhadora, mas apenas 16% dos respondentes assinalou a existência de representantes dos trabalhadores eleitos para a SH&ST. A hipótese de investigação principal era a de que as empresas com um sistema integrado de gestão da SH&ST seriam também as empresas com um (i) maior número de políticas, programas e actividades de saúde; (ii) maior índice de saúde; (iii) maior índice de realização; e (iv) maior percentagem dos encargos com a SH&ST no total da massa salarial. As actividades de tipo A e B, tradicionalmente associadas à SH&ST, representavam, só por si, mais de 57% do total. Os resultados, correspondentes às respostas da Secção C do questionário, apontam, para (i) a hipervalorização dos exames de medicina do trabalho; e por outro para (ii) o subaproveitamento de um vasto conjunto de actividades (nomeadamente as de tipo D e E), que são correntemente levadas a cabo pelas empresas e que nunca ou raramente são pensadas em termos de protecção e promoção da saúde dos trabalhadores. As actividades e os programas de tipo C (Prevenção de comportamentos de risco/Promoção de estilos de vida saudáveis), ainda eram as menos frequentes entre nós, a seguir aos Programas sociais e de bem-estar (E). É a existência de sistemas de gestão integrados de SH&ST, e não o tamanho da empresa ou outra característica sociodemográfica ou técnico-organizacional, que permite predizer a frequência de políticas de saúde mais activas e mais inovadores. Os três principais motivos ou razões que levam as empresas portuguesas a investir na protecção e promoção da saúde dos seus trabalhadores eram, por ordem de frequência, (i) o absentismo em geral; (ii) a produtividade, qualidade e/ou competitividade, e (iii) a filosofia de gestão ou cultura organizacional. Quanto aos três principais benefícios que são reportados, surge em primeiro lugar (i) a melhoria da saúde dos trabalhadores, seguida da (ii) melhoria do ambiente do ambiente de trabalho e, por fim, (iii) a melhoria da produtividade, qualidade e/ou competitividade.Quanto aos três principais obstáculos que se põem, em geral, ao desenvolvimento das iniciativas de saúde, eles seriam os seguintes, na percepção dos respondentes: (i) a falta de empenho dos trabalhadores; (ii) a falta de tempo; e (iii) os problemas de articulação/ comunicação a nível interno. Por fim, (i) o empenho das estruturas hierárquicas; (ii) a cultura organizacional propícia; e (iii) o sentido de responsabilidade social surgem, destacadamente, como os três principais factores facilitadores do desenvolvimento da política de saúde no trabalho. Tantos estes factores como os obstáculos são de natureza endógena, susceptíveis portanto de controlo por parte dos gestores. Na sua generalidade, os resultados deste trabalho põem em evidência a fraqueza teóricometodológica de grande parte das iniciativas de saúde, realizadas na década de 1990. Muitas delas seriam medidas avulsas, que se inserem na gestão corrente das nossas empresas, e que dificilmente poderão ser tomadas como expressão de uma política de saúde no local de trabalho, (i) definida e assumida pela gestão de topo, (ii) socialmente concertada, (iii) coerente, (iv) baseada na avaliação de necessidades e expectativas de saúde dos trabalhadores, (v) divulgada, conhecida e partilhada por todos, (vi) contingencial, flexível e integrada, e, por fim, (vii) orientada por custos e resultados. Segundo a Declaração do Luxemburgo (1997), a promoção da saúde engloba o esforço conjunto dos empregadores, dos trabalhadores, do Estado e da sociedade civil para melhorar a segurança, a saúde e o bem-estar no trabalho, objectivo isso que pode ser conseguido através da (i) melhoria da organização e das demais condições de trabalho, da (ii) participação efectiva e concreta dos trabalhadores bem como do seu (iii) desenvolvimento pessoal. Abstract Health at work policies: a sociological inquiry into Portuguese corporations Portuguese literature on workplace health policies, programs and activities is still scarce. With this research project the author intends (i) to improve knowledge on the Occupational Health and Safety (shortly thereafter, OSH) management systems and (ii) contribute to the development of health promotion initiatives at a corporate level. Five categories of workplace health initiatives have been identified: (i) Occupational Hygiene and Safety / Improvement of Physical Working Environment (type A programs); (ii) Health Screening, Medical Surveillance and Other Occupational Health Care Provision (type B programs); (iii) Preventing Risk Behaviours / Promoting Healthy Life Styles (type C programs); (iv) Organisational Change / Improvement of Psycho-Social Working Environment (type D programs); and (v) Industrial and Social Welfare (type E programs). A mail questionnaire was sent to the Chief Executive Officer of the 1500 largest Portuguese companies, operating in the primary and secondary sectors (≥ 100 employees) or tertiary sector (≥ 75 employees). Response rate has reached about 20% (259 respondents, representing about 300 companies). Carried out between Spring 1997 and Summer 1998, the fieldwork has encompassed two direct mailings and one phone follow-up. Sample is considered to be representative of the two thousand largest companies. One in four is a multinational. Union membership rate is about 30%, but only 16% has reported the existence of a workers’ health and safety representative. The most frequent workplace health initiatives were those under the traditional scope of the OSH field (type A and B programs) (57% of total) (e.g., Periodical Medical Examinations; Individual Protective Equipment; Assessment of Working Ability). In SMEs (< 250) it was less likely to find out some time-consuming and expensive activities (e.g., Training on OSH knowledge and skills, Improvement of environmental parameters as ventilation, lighting, heating).There were significant differences in SMEs, when compared with the larger ones (≥ 250) concerning type B programs such as Periodical medical examinations, GP consultation, Nursing care, Other medical and non-medical specialities (e.g., psychiatrist, psychologist, ergonomist, physiotherapist, occupational social worker). With regard to type C programs, there were a greater percentage of programs centred on Substance abuse (tobacco, alcohol, and drug) than on Other health risk behaviours. SMEs representatives reported very few prevention- oriented programs in the field of Drug abuse, Nutrition, Physical activity, Off- job accidents, Blood pressure or Weight control. Frequency of type D programs included Training on Human Resources Management, Training on Organisational Behaviour, Total Quality Management, Job Design/Ergonomics, and Workplace rehabilitation. In general, implementation of this type of programs (Organisational Change / Improvement of Psychosocial Working Environment) is not largely driven by health considerations. Concerning Industrial and Social Welfare (Type E programs), the larger employers are in a better position than SMEs to offer to their employees a large spectrum of health resources and facilities (e.g., Restaurant, Canteen, Resting room, Transport, Infra-structures for physical activity, Surgery, Complementary social protection, Support to recreational and cultural activities, Magazine or newsletter, Intranet). Other workplace health promotion programs like Training on Stress Management, Employee Assistance Programs, or Self-help groups are uncommon in the Portuguese worksites. The existence of integrated OSH management systems, not the company size, is the main variable explaining the implementation of more active and innovative workplace health policies in Portugal. The three main prompting factors reported by employers for health protection and promotion initiatives are: (i) Employee absenteeism; (ii) Productivity, quality and/or competitiveness; and (iii) Corporate culture/management philosophy. On the other hand, (i) Improved staff’s health, (ii) Improved working environment and (iii) Improved productivity, quality and/or competitiveness were the three main benefits reported by companies’ representatives, as a result of successful implementation of workplace health initiatives. (i) Lack of staff commitment; (ii) Lack of time; and (iii) Problems of co-operation and communication within company or establishment (iii) are perceived to be the main barriers companies must cope with. Asked about the main facilitating factors, these companies have pointed out the following ones: (i) Top management commitment; (ii) Corporate culture; and (iii) Sense of social responsibility. This sociological research report shows the methodological weaknesses of workplace health initiatives, carried out by Portuguese companies during the last ‘90s. In many cases, these programs and actions were not part of a corporate health strategy and policy, (i) based on the assessment of workers’ health needs and expectancies, (ii) advocated by the employer or the chief executive officer, (ii) planned and implemented with the staff consultation and participation or (iv) evaluated according to a cost-benefit analysis. In short, corporate health policy and action were still rather based on more traditional OSH approaches and should be reoriented towards Workplace Health Promotion (WHP) approach. According to the Luxembourg Declaration of Workplace Health Promotion in the European Union (1997), WHP is “a combination of: (i) improving the work organisation and environment; (ii) promoting active participation; (iii) encouraging personal development”.Résumée Politique(s) de santé au travail: une enquête sociologique aux entreprises portugaises Au Portugal on ne sait presque rien des politiques de santé au travail, adoptés par les entreprises. Avec ce projet de recherche, on veut (i) améliorer la connaissance sur les systèmes de gestion de la santé et de la sécurité au travail et, au même temps, (ii) contribuer au développement de la promotion de la santé des travailleurs. Une typologie a été usée pour identifier les politiques, programmes et actions de santé au travail: A. Amélioration des conditions de travail / Sécurité au travail; B. Médecine du travail /Santé au travail; C. Prévention des comportements de risque / Promotion de styles de vie sains; D. Interventions organisationnelles / Amélioration des facteurs psychosociaux au travail; E. Gestion de personnel et bien-être social. Un questionnaire postal a été envoyé au représentant maximum des grandes entreprises portugaises, industrielles (≥ 100 employés) ou des services (≥ 75 employés). Le taux de réponse a été environ 20% (259 répondants, concernant trois centaines d’entreprises et d’établissements). La recherche de champ, conduite du printemps 1997 à l’été 1998, a compris deux enquêtes postales et un follow-up téléphonique. L´échantillon est représentatif de la population des deux miles plus grandes entreprises. Un quart sont des multinationales. Le taux de syndicalisation est d’environ 30%. Toutefois, il y a seulement 16% de lieux de travail avec des représentants du personnel pour la santé et sécurité au travail. Les initiatives de santé au travail les plus communes sont celles concernant le domaine plus traditionnel (types A et B) (57% du total): par exemple, les examens de médecine du travail, l’équipement de protection individuelle, les tests d’aptitude au travail. En ce qui concerne les programmes de type C, les plus fréquents sont le contrôle et la prévention des addictions (tabac, alcool, drogue). Les interventions dans le domaine de du système technique et organisationnelle du travail peuvent comprendre les courses de formation en gestion de ressources humaines ou en psychosociologie des organisations, l’ergonomie, le travail posté ou la gestion de la qualité totale. En général, la protection et la promotion de la santé des travailleurs ne sont pas prises en considération dans l’implémentation des initiatives de type D. Il y a des différences quand on compare les grandes entreprises et les moyennes en matière de politique de gestion du personnel e du bien-être (programmes de type E, y compris l’allocation de ressources humaines ou logistiques comme, par exemple, restaurant, journal d’entreprise, transports, installations et équipements sportifs). D’autres activités de promotion de la santé au travail comme la formation en gestion du stress, les programmes d’ assistance aux employés, ou les groupes de soutien et d’auto-aide sont encore très peu fréquents dans les entreprises portugaises. C’est le système intégré de gestion de la santé et de la sécurité au travail, et non pas la taille de l’entreprise, qui aide à prédire l’existence de politiques actives et innovatrices dans ce domaine. Les trois facteurs principaux qui encouragent les actions de santé (prompting factors, en anglais) sont (i) l’absentéisme (y compris la maladie), (ii) les problèmes liés à la productivité, qualité et/ou la compétitivité, et aussi (iii) la culture de l’entreprise/philosophie de gestion. Du coté des bénéfices, on a obtenu surtout l’amélioration (i) de la santé du personnel, (ii) des conditions de travail, et (iii) de la productivité, qualité et/ou compétitivité.Les facteurs qui facilitent les actions de santé au travail sont (i) l’engagement de la direction, (ii) la culture de l’entreprise, et (iii) le sens de responsabilité sociale. Par contre, les obstacles à surmonter, selon les organisations qui ont répondu au questionnaire, seraient surtout (i) le manque d’engagement des travailleurs et de leur représentants, (ii) le temps insuffisant, et (iii) les problèmes de articulation/communication au niveau interne de l’entreprise/établissement. Ce travail de recherche sociologique montre la faiblesse méthodologique des services et activités de santé et sécurité au travail, mis en place par les entreprises portugaises dans les années de 1990, à la suite des accords de concertation sociale de 1991. Dans beaucoup de cas, (i) ces politiques de santé ne font pas partie encore d’un système intégré de gestion, (ii) il n’a pas d’évaluation des besoins et des expectatives des travailleurs, (iii) c’est très bas ou inexistant le niveau de participation du personnel, (iv) on ne fait pas d’analyse coût-bénéfice. On peut conclure que les politiques de santé au travail sont plus proches de la médecine du travail et de la sécurité au travail que de la promotion de la santé des travailleurs. Selon la Déclaration du Luxembourg sur la Promotion de la Santé au Lieu de Travail dans la Communauté Européenne (1997), celle-ci « comprend toutes les mesures des employeurs, des employés et de la société pour améliorer l'état de santé et le bien être des travailleurs » e « ceci peut être obtenu par la concentration des efforts dans les domaines suivants: (i) amélioration de l'organisation du travail et des conditions de travail ; (ii) promotion d'une participation active des collaborateurs ; (iii) renforcement des compétences personnelles ».

An integrated reusable remote laboratory to complement electronics teaching

The great majority of the courses on science and technology areas where lab work is a fundamental part of the apprenticeship was not until recently available to be taught at distance. This reality is changing with the dissemination of remote laboratories. Supported by resources based on new information and communication technologies, it is now possible to remotely control a wide variety of real laboratories. However, most of them are designed specifically to this purpose, are inflexible and only on its functionality they resemble the real ones. In this paper, an alternative remote lab infrastructure devoted to the study of electronics is presented. Its main characteristics are, from a teacher's perspective, reusability and simplicity of use, and from a students' point of view, an exact replication of the real lab, enabling them to complement or finish at home the work started at class. The remote laboratory is integrated in the Learning Management System in use at the school, and therefore, may be combined with other web experiments and e-learning strategies, while safeguarding security access issues.

Automated design of microwave discrete tuning differential capacitance circuits in Si-integrated technologies

A genetic algorithm used to design radio-frequency binary-weighted differential switched capacitor arrays (RFDSCAs) is presented in this article. The algorithm provides a set of circuits all having the same maximum performance. This article also describes the design, implementation, and measurements results of a 0.25 lm BiCMOS 3-bit RFDSCA. The experimental results show that the circuit presents the expected performance up to 40 GHz. The similarity between the evolutionary solutions, circuit simulations, and measured results indicates that the genetic synthesis method is a very useful tool for designing optimum performance RFDSCAs.

Fractional derivatives: probability interpretation and frequency response of rational approximations

The theory of fractional calculus (FC) is a useful mathematical tool in many applied sciences. Nevertheless, only in the last decades researchers were motivated for the adoption of the FC concepts. There are several reasons for this state of affairs, namely the co-existence of different definitions and interpretations, and the necessity of approximation methods for the real time calculation of fractional derivatives (FDs). In a first part, this paper introduces a probabilistic interpretation of the fractional derivative based on the Grünwald-Letnikov definition. In a second part, the calculation of fractional derivatives through Padé fraction approximations is analyzed. It is observed that the probabilistic interpretation and the frequency response of fraction approximations of FDs reveal a clear correlation between both concepts.

A Design methodology for integrated inductor-based DC-DC converters

A design methodology for monolithic integration of inductor based DC-DC converters is proposed in this paper. A power loss model of the power stage, including the drive circuits, is defined in order to optimize efficiency. Based on this model and taking as reference a 0.35 mu m CMOS process, a buck converter was designed and fabricated. For a given set of operating conditions the defined power loss model allows to optimize the design parameters for the power stage, including the gate-driver tapering factor and the width of the power MOSFETs. Experimental results obtained from a buck converter at 100 MHz switching frequency are presented to validate the proposed methodology.

Response rate in the Study of Cardiovascular Risks in Adolescents – ERICA

ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE To describe the response rate and characteristics of people who either took part or not in from the Study of Cardiovascular Risks in Adolescents (ERICA) , according to information subsets. METHODS ERICA is a school-based, nation-wide investigation with a representative sample of 12 to 17-year-old adolescents attending public or private schools in municipalities with over 100,000 inhabitants in Brazil. Response rate of eligible subjects were calculated according to macro-regions, sex, age, and type of school (public or private). We also calculated the percentages of replacement schools in comparison with the ones originally selected as per the sample design, according to the types of schools in the macro-regions. The subjects and non-subjects were compared according to sex, age, and average body mass indices (kg/m2). RESULTS We had 102,327 eligible adolescents enrolled in the groups drawn. The highest percentage of complete information was obtained for the subset of the questionnaire (72.9%). Complete information regarding anthropometric measurements and the ones from the questionnaire were obtained for 72.0% of the adolescents, and the combination of these data with the 24-hour dietary recall were obtained for 70.3% of the adolescents. Complete information from the questionnaire plus biochemical blood evaluation data were obtained for 52.5% of the morning session adolescents (selected for blood tests). The response percentage in private schools was higher than the one in public schools for most of the combination of information. The ratio of older and male adolescents non-participants was higher than the ratio among participants. CONCLUSIONS The response rate for non-invasive procedures was high. The response rate for blood collection – an invasive procedure that requires a 12-hour fasting period and the informed consent form from legal guardians – was lower. The response rate observed in public schools was lower than in the private ones, and that may reflect lower school frequency of registered students.

Malaria at Humaita county, Amazonas state, Brazil: XVII — immune response in patients with Plasmodium falciparum according to gametocytes

In August 1983 the Authors studied 36 patients with Plasmodium falciparum malaria and 14 normal individuals born in Humaita region who had never had malaria, had no spleen enlargement and had negative parasitemia as well as passive hemagglutination. Medical histories were obtained and complete physical examination were performed in all of them just as blood tests, parasite density and lymphocyte typing. The lymphocytes were separated and then frozen in liquid nitrogen for later typing by rosette formation. The patients were divided in two groups according to the presence (13 patients) or abscence (23 patients) of gametocytes before treatment. Severe malaria was predominant in the group without gametocytes. The results showed a decrease in the T-cell numbers in Plasmodium falciparum acute malaria patients both with or without gametocytes before the treatment, while B-cell numbers were normal only in the patients with gametocytes. These observations as like as those previously reported by the Authors, permit to associate the presence of gametocytes in peripheral blood and normal number of B-cells in patients with mild Plasmodium falciparum malaria.

A green integrated process for biodiesel production

Dissertation presented at Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia from Universidade Nova de Lisboa to obtain the degree of Master in Chemical and Biochemical Engineering

Schistosomiasis mansoni: evidence for a milder response in germfree mice

Germfree (GF and conventional (CV) mice were infected intraperitoneally with GF cercariae of Schistosoma mansoni and kept for six weeks. Twenty four hours before killing, they were injected with [³H]-thymidine. Schistosoma worms, harvested after perfusion of portal system, were counted as well as eggs from liver and intestines. Liver was also used for DNA, protein, and collagen determinations. [³H] -Thymidine incorporation and collagen determinations were used to establish the indices given by the difference between their contents in infected and control animals and expressed per thousand eggs in liver. The recovery of worms in GF mice was around twice as much as in CV ones, and the total number of eggs was higher in the liver of GF animals. No hypertrophy of liver cells was observed by the ratio protein/DNA, but [³H]-thymidine incorporation into DNA was higher than in controls in both GF and CV infected animals. The [³H]-thymidine and collagen indices were lower in GF animals which indicate a more discrete cellular replication and smaller collagen content in relation to the number of eggs present in livers of these mice. It was concluded that the disease seems to be less severe in GF animals.

Cell mediated immune response in human antirabies revaccination

The occurrence of secondary cell mediated immune response (CMI) in human antirabies immunization was studied. The Puenzalida & Palácios vaccine was used because it is routinely used in Brazil. CMI was evaluated by lymphoblastic transformation indices obtained in whole blood culture in the presence of rabies and control (nervous tissue) antigens. Eleven volunteers submitted to revaccination constituted the group under study, while three other volunteers submitted primo vaccination were utilized as control group. A clear secondary CMI to rabies antigen was detected in all the revaccinated volunteers who showed earlier and more intense response than the control group. Response to the control antigen, however, present in all the components of the first group was not detectable in two out of the three primovaccinated and very low in the third one.

Integrated didactics: an example of a curriculum model enhancing knowledge crossing

In this paper, we introduce an innovative course in the Portuguese Context, the Master's Course in “Integrated Didactics in Mother Tongue, Maths, Natural and Social Sciences”, taking place at the Lisbon School of Education and discussing in particular the results of the evaluation made by the students who attended the Curricular Unit - Integrated Didactics (CU-ID). This course was designed for in-service teachers of the first six years of schooling and intends to improve connections between different curriculum areas. In this paper, we start to present a few general ideas about curriculum development; to discuss the concept of integration; to present the principles and objectives of the course created as well as its structure; to describe the methodology used in the evaluation process of the above mentioned CU-ID. The results allow us to state that the students recognized, as positive features of the CU-ID, the presence in all sessions of two teachers simultaneously from different scientific areas, as well as invitations issued to specialists on the subject of integration and to other teachers that already promote forms of integration in schools. As negative features, students noted a lack of integrated purpose, applying simultaneously the four scientific areas of the course, and also indicated the need to be familiar with more models of integrated education. Consequently, the suggestions for improvement derived from these negative features. The students also considered that their evaluation process was correct, due to the fact that it was focused on the design of an integrated project for one of the school years already mentioned.

Bisphenol A alters transcript levels of biomarker genes for major depressive disorder

Major depressive disorder is a moderately heritable disorder characterized by one or more major depressive episodes. Laboratory tests to suport MDD diagnosis are not available. Diagnosis and treatment are based on various signs and symptoms not always fitting into strict diagnostic categories. Research for biological markers of neuropsychiatric disorders has been a challenge.

Antibody response to heat-inactivated hepatitis B vaccine (CLB-3mg) in hemodialysis patients and occupational risk personnel: a one year follow-up

Immune response against hepatitis B vaccine (CLB 3mg) was evaluated in 59 hemodialysis patients and 20 occupational risk personnel. Seroconversion was induced in 52.5% and 70.0% respectively. Twelve months after the first dose, 37.5% of patients and 60.0% of occupational risk personnel had detectable anti-HBs level. Antibody level was expressed in sample ratio units (SRU). Considering only the responders, in the patients group 38.7% had a low anti-HBs response (2.1-9.9 SRU) 32.3% a medium response (10-99.9 SRU) and 29.0% a high response (>100 SRU) while in occupational risk personnel these values were 14.3%, 64.3% and 21.4% respectively. The authors suggest the use of HBV vaccines with more elevated HBsAg concentration or a reinforced immunization schedule to improve the anti-HBs response not only for patients but also for healthy persons.

Variation in response of Schistosoma mansoni strains to schistosomicides

The BH strain of Schistosoma mansoni was found to be highly susceptible, to hy cant hone (1 x 80 mg/kg), oxamniquine (1 x 100 mg/kg) niridazole (5 x 100 mg/kg), praziquantel (1 x 100 mg/kg), oltipraz (5 x 125 mg/kg) and amoscanate (1 x 300 mg/kg) and is therefore a good reference strain for chemotherapeutic trials. By contrast, the MPR-1 strain was shown to have developed resistance to oxamniquine without ever having been dosed with oxamniquine. Other oxamniquine/hycanthone resistant strains were shown to have maintained their resistance and a strain believed to be partially resistant to oltipraz was evaluated.

Contributo para o estudo da influência do stress na resposta imunitária à vacina contra a gripe em profissionais de saúde

Resumo: Os profissionais de saúde podem estar expostos a vários factores indutores de stress crónico nomeadamente de natureza profissional destacando-se, entre os seus possíveis efeitos, a diminuição da resposta de anticorpos após administração de vacinas, entre as quais, a vacina contra a gripe. Uma vez que os trabalhadores da saúde estão expostos a factores indutores de stress e, simultaneamente, a agentes biológicos cujos efeitos poderão ser prevenidos pela vacinação, é pertinente estudar a influência do stress na resposta imunitária à vacina contra a gripe em enfermeiros. Constituíram objectivos deste trabalho: (1) estudar a associação entre a presença de stress crónico em enfermeiros hospitalares e a “insuficiente” resposta imunitária à vacina contra a gripe, avaliada um mês após a vacinação (T1); (2) estudar a associação entre a presença de stress crónico em enfermeiros hospitalares e a redução dos títulos de anticorpos dirigidos às hemaglutininas seis meses após a vacinação (T6) e (3) identificar algumas características das unidades de internamento e do trabalho dos participantes que possam estar associadas à presença de stress crónico e estudar a sua possível associação com a resposta imunitária à vacina contra a gripe. Realizou-se um estudo caso-controlo incorporado num estudo de coortes e a amostra em estudo foi constituída por 136 enfermeiros saudáveis (83,8% sexo feminino; média de idades de 33anos) de um hospital universitário. Realizaram-se entrevistas individuais e aplicaram-se as versões portuguesas dos questionários The General Health Questionnaire (GHQ12) e Maslach Burnout Inventory – Human Services Survey (MBI-HSS) para determinação da presença de stress crónico pelo método da triangulação, no início do estudo (T0) e realizou-se a recolha de dados relativos à caracterização de elementos de trabalho nas unidades de internamento. Foi administrada a vacina contra a gripe e determinou-se os títulos de anticorpos dirigidos às hemaglutininas de cada estirpe componentes da vacina contra a gripe utilizada em 2007, antes da vacinação, um mês e seis meses após a vacinação. Não se encontrou associação, ao nível de significância de 5%, entre a presença de stress e a “insuficiente” resposta à vacina contra a gripe, avaliada pela taxa de indivíduos que apresentaram um aumento, ao fim de um mês, inferior a quatro vezes os títulos de anticorpos antes da vacinação. No entanto, encontrou-se uma maior proporção de indivíduos com stress no grupo de participantes em que ocorreu uma diminuição do título de anticorpos dirigidos à hemaglutinina AH1 (ac AH1) em T6, quando comparado com o respectivo grupo controlo. A diferença entre grupos foi estatisticamente significativa, quando se avaliou a presença de stress pelo método da triangulação usando a entrevista (p=0,006), pelo método da triangulação usando o GHQ12 (p=0,045) e ainda usando a combinação dos três critérios (p=0,001). Após análise multivariada, verificou-se que a associação entre a presença de XXVI stress e a redução dos ac AH1 em T6 manteve significado estatístico (respectivamente, p= 0,010, p= 0,042 e p=0,002) e apresentou odds ratio ajustados, em função de cada um dos métodos de avaliação da presença de stress, de 3,643, de 2,733 e de 5,223. A quantidade de trabalho percepcionada como sobrecarga constituiu o factor indutor de stress mais vezes referido (58,8% da amostra e 61,8% dos enfermeiros de unidades de internamento), seguida dos conflitos entre profissionais. O contacto com o sofrimento e a morte de doentes foram identificados em quarto lugar pela amostra, mas em segundo pelos enfermeiros de unidades de internamento. Nesses, verificou-se uma associação positiva entre trabalhar em Serviços onde o número de doentes falecidos foi muito elevado e a presença de stress, medido pelo método da triangulação usando a entrevista (p=0,039), usando o GHQ12 (p=0,019), usando a escala de exaustão emocional do MBI-HSS (p=0,012) e pela combinação dos três métodos (p=0,014). Verificou-se também uma associação positiva entre a presença de stress, identificada pelo método da triangulação usando a escala de exaustão emocional do MBI-HSS, e o trabalho em serviços de internamento onde a percentagem de doentes idosos (p=0,025) e a taxa de letalidade (p=0,036) foram elevadas. Contudo, não se encontrou associação entre a exposição muito frequente ao sofrimento e à morte de doentes e a redução do título de ac AH1 em T6. Possivelmente, a exposição a esse factor indutor de stress, apesar de estar relacionada com a presença de stress nos enfermeiros de serviços de internamento, não foi suficientemente intenso para, por si só, estar associada à redução do título de ac AH1 em T6. A associação encontrada entre a presença de stress crónico e a redução do título de anticorpos AH1 em T6 vem apoiar a resposta à questão de investigação inicialmente colocada de que o stress poderá influenciar negativamente a manutenção dos títulos de anticorpos, mesmo em indivíduos adultos não idosos. Assim, o risco de um enfermeiro com stress apresentar redução do título de anticorpos dirigidos à hemaglutinina da estirpe AH1N1 – A/Solomon Islands/3/2006 ao fim dos seis meses do estudo, foi 3,6, 2,7 ou 5,2 vezes superior ao de um enfermeiro sem stress, consoante o critério de stress ter sido determinado, respectivamente, pelo método da triangulação usando a entrevista, pelo método da triangulação utilizando o GHQ12 ou pela combinação dos três critérios. Summary: Health workers may be exposed to various factors causing chronic stress namely those related directly to their activity, in particular the decrease in the capacity of the response of antibodies after the administration of the vaccines, amongst others the Influenza vaccine. Since health workers are exposed to factors causing stress and at the same time biological agents, whose effects may be prevented through vaccination, it is important to study the influence of stress in the immunity response to the Influenza vaccine on nurses. The aims of this study are: (1) to examine the relation between chronic stress in hospital nurses and the “insufficient” immunity response to the Influenza vaccine, assessed at one month after vaccination (T1); (2) to examine the relation between chronic stress in hospital nurses and the decrease of the hemagglutinin titles of antibodies six months after vaccination (T6); (3) to identify some characteristics of internment units and the work of the participants that may be related to the presence of chronic stress and to study its possible relation with the immunity response to the Influenza vaccine. A control-case study, integrated in a coortes study, was carried out and the sample under analysis consisted of 136 healthy nurses (83,8% female; average age 33 years old) from a university hospital. Several individual interviews were conducted and the portuguese versions of General Health Questionnaire (GHQ12) and Maslach Burnout Inventory – Human Services Survey (MBI-HSS) was applied in order to determine the presence of chronic stress, using the triangulation method at the beginning of the study (T0). Data concerning the particular features of the internment units was collected. The Influenza vaccine was administered and the titles of hemagglutinin antibodies of each strain composing the Influenza vaccine used in 2007, before vaccination, and a month and six months after vaccination, were determined. There was no statistically relevant (5%) relation between stress and the “insufficient” immune response to the Influenza vaccine, according to the rate of individuals that showed, after a month, a level of antibodies concentration lower than four times the level prior to the vaccination. Nevertheless, there was a greater number of individuals with stress in the group of participants in which there was a decrease of the hemagglutinin titles of antibodies AH1 (ac AH1) in T6, when compared to the control group under study. The difference between groups was statistically relevant when assessing the presence of stress by triangulation method using the interview (p=0,006), by triangulation method using the GHQ12 (p=0,045) and by the combination of the three criteria (p=0,001). After multivariate analysis, it was verified that the XXVIII relation between the presence of stress and the reduction of the ac AH1 in T6 was statistically relevant (respectively, p= 0,010, p= 0,042 and p=0,002) and the odds ratio were, according to each of the methods used to assess the presence of stress, 3,643, 2,733 and 5,223. Overwork was the most emphasised stress-causing factor (58,8% of the sample and 61,8% of the nurses working in the Internment Units), followed by conflicts arousing among co-workers. Witnessing the suffering and death of patients was ranked as the fourth cause of stress, but the second by the nurses of the internment units. The former revealed a positive connection between working in the services, where there was a high rate of deaths, and the presence of stress, when assessing the presence of stress by triangulation method using the interview (p=0,039), the GHQ12 (p=0,019), the MBI-HSS emotional exhaustion scale (p=0,012) and by the combination of the three criteria (p=0,014).There was also a connection between the presence of stress, identified by the method of triangulation using the MBI-HSS emotional exhaustion scale, and working in the internment units, where the percentage of elderly people (p=0,025) and the mortality rate (p=0,036) were high. However, there was no connection between frequent exposure to suffering and death in patients and the reduction of ac AH1 titles, in T6. Although one can establish a connection between stress in nurses working in the internment units and the aforementioned stress-causing factor, the exposure to that factor was not, per se, intense enough to reduce the ac AH1 title in T6. The relation found between the presence of chronic stress and the reduction of AH1 antibodies titles in T6, corroborates the hypothesis that stress can negatively influence the title of antibodies, even in non-elderly adults. Thus, and according to the criteria used to define stress, by the triangulation method using the interview, by the triangulation method using the GHQ12 or the combination of the three criteria respectively, the risk of a nurse suffering from stress showing a reduction in the title of hemagglutinin antibodies for the strain AH1N1 – A/Solomon Islands/3/2006 six-month after Influenza vaccine was 3,6, 2,7 or 5,2 times greater than on a nurse suffering from no stress at all. Résumé: Les professionnels de la santé peuvent être exposés à différents facteurs inducteurs de stress chronique de nature professionnelle. On remarque, parmi les effets possibles, une baisse de la réponse des anticorps après l´administration de vaccins, comme en particulier, le vaccin de la grippe. Lorsque les professionnels de la santé ont été exposés à des facteurs inducteurs de stress, et de manière simultanée, à des agents biologiques dont les effets pourront être prévenus par la vaccination, il est pertinent d´étudier l´influence du stress dans la réponse immunitaire au vaccin de la grippe chez les infirmiers. Ils ont constitué des objectifs d´études et de discussion : (1) étudier l´association entre la présence de stress chronique chez les infirmiers, en milieu hospitalier, et la “insuffisant” réponse immunitaire au vaccin de la grippe, vérifiée à un mois après la vaccination (T1); (2) étudier l´association entre la présence de stress chronique chez les infirmiers, en milieu hospitalier, et la réduction de la teneur des anticorps dirigé à la hémaglutinina six mois après la vaccination (T6) (3) identifier certaines caractéristiques des unités d´internement, et étudier les aspects du travail des participants, qui puissent être associée à la présence de stress chronique et étudier sa possible association avec la réponse immunitaire au vaccin de la grippe. Une étude cas-contrôle incorporée dans une étude de groupe a été réalisée et un échantillon, pour étude, a été constitué par 136 infirmiers sains (83,8% de sexe féminin, âge moyen 33 ans) travaillant dans un hôpital universitaire. Des entretiens individuels ont été réalisés et les versions portugaises des questionnaires de General Health Questionnaire (GHQ12) et Maslach Burnout Inventory- Human Service Survey (MBI-HSS) ont été utilisés pour déterminer la présence de stress chronique grâce à la méthode de triangulation, au début de l´étude (T0) et un relevé de données relatives à la caractérisation d´éléments de travail dans les unités d´internement a été fait. Le vaccin de la grippe a été administré et les teneurs en anticorps dirigés aux hémaglutininas de chaque composant du vaccin de la grippe pour 2007 ont été déterminés, avant la vaccination et un mois et six mois après. On n´a pas trouvé d´association, à un niveau significatif de au moins 5%, entre la présence de stress et la “insuffisant” réponse au vaccin de la grippe, évaluée par le taux d´individus qui ont présenté une augmentation, à la fin du mois, inférieur à quatre fois la teneur des anticorps par rapport à avant la vaccination. Cependant , on a trouvé une plus grande proportion d´individus victimes de stress dans le groupe des participants où il y a eu une baisse de la teneur des anticorps dirigé à la hémaglutinina AH1 (ac AH1) en T6, après comparaison avec le respectif groupe de contrôle. La différence entre les groupes a été statistiquement significative lorsqu´on a vérifié la présence de stress grâce à la méthode de triangulation, en utilisant l´entretien (p=0,006), par la méthode de triangulation en utilisant le GHQ12 (p=0,045) et en utilisant aussi la combinaison des trois critères (p=0,001). Après une analyse XXX multivariée, on a vérifié que l´association entre la présence de stress et la réduction des ac AH1 en T6 a conservé un signifié statistique (respectivement, p=0,010, p=0,042 et p=0,002) et a présenté des odds ratio ajustés, en fonction de chacune des méthodes de vérification de la présence de stress de 3,643, de 2,733 et de 5,223. La quantité de travail perçue comme une surcharge constitue le facteur inducteur de stress le plus souvent cité (58,8% de l´échantillon et 61,8% des infirmiers des unités d´internement), suivi par les conflits entre professionnels. Le contact avec la souffrance et la mort des patients a été placé en quatrième position par l´échantillon, mais en deuxième position par les infirmiers des unités d´internement. Dans ces cas, on a vérifié une association évidente entre le fait de travailler dans des services où le nombre de patients décédés a été très élevé et la présence de stress, identifiée par la méthode de triangulation, en utilisant l´entretien (p=0,039), le GHQ12 (p=0,019), l´échelle de fatigue émotionnelle du MBI-HSS (p=0,012) et en utilisant aussi la combinaison des trois critères (p=0,014). On a aussi vérifié une association positive entre la présence de stress, identifiée par la méthode de triangulation, en utilisant l´échelle de fatigue émotionnelle du MBI-HSS et le travail dans des services d´internement où le pourcentage de malade âgés (p=0,025) et le taux de mortalité ont été élevés (p=0,036). Malgré tout, on n´a pas trouvé d´association entre l´exposition très fréquente à la souffrance et à la mort des patients et la réduction de la teneur de ac AH1 en T6. Probablement l´exposition à ce facteur inducteur de stress, bien qu´elle soit liée à la présence de stress chez les infirmiers des services d´internement, n´a pas été suffisamment intense pour, en elle-même, être associée à la réduction de la teneur ac AH1 enT6. L´association trouvée entre la présence de stress chronique et la réduction de la teneur des anticorps AH1 en T6 vient renforcer l´hypothèse que le stress pourra influencer négativement la manutention des teneurs en anticorps même chez les individus adultes jeunes. Donc le risque qu´un infirmier stressé présente une réduction de la teneur en anticorps dirigés à la hémaglutinina de le composant AH1N1-A/Solomon Island/3/2006 à la fin des six mois d´études a été 3,6, 2,7 ou 5,2 fois supérieure à celui d´un infirmier sans stress, après avoir déterminé le critère de stress, respectivement par la méthode de triangulation utilisant l´entretien, par la méthode de triangulation utilisant le GHQ12 ou par la combinaison des trois critères.