Factors associated with mammography utilization in Sao Paulo and Mexico city elderly females

Introduction. Breast cancer has the highest incidence and mortality rates of all cancers in Sao Paulo and Mexico City women with rates expected to rise due to increasing elderly populations. While mammograms could reduce the breast cancer burden, little information exists about screening behavior factors in these areas. The primary objective of this study is testing the association of socio-demographic, geographic, and health access/health status variables on mammogram screenings in elderly females in both cities. Studying the regions' healthcare systems and their screening impact is the ancillary objective. ^ Methods. Accounting for the complex sample design (weights, stratification, and clusters) of the 1999-2000 SABE study, analysis of mammogram utilization in the past two years was performed. The sample consisted of 1239 women from Sao Paulo and 1349 women from Mexico City. ^ Results. Having private insurance in Sao Paulo (OR = 5.86) and Mexico City (OR = 4.09) increased the chance of having a mammogram in the targeted women. In both cities, women with higher levels of education had higher likelihoods of screening (Sao Paulo OR = 4.56 and Mexico City OR = 3.04). Age, regular medical care, and health status were significant in Sao Paulo; however, the factors showed no significance in Mexico City. ^ Discussion. Mammogram utilization can reduce mortality from breast cancer, and understanding screening factors is crucial to screening adherence. Addressing key variables may lead to increased screening and decreased breast cancer mortality in elderly women in Sao Paulo, Mexico City, and similar regions. ^

A systematic review of community-based participatory research interventions in pediatric and adolescent populations

Background. Community-based participatory research (CBPR) is a collaborative approach to research actively involving community members in all aspects of the research process. CBPR is not a new research method, but an approach that has gained increased attention in the field of public health over the last several years. Recognition of the inequalities in health status associated with social and environmental factors have led to calls for a renewed focus on ecological approaches to research. Ecological approaches acknowledge that the health of the community is dependent on an interaction between behavioral and environmental factors affecting the entire population. While many published studies document the benefits of CBPR in difficult-to-reach populations and describe successful implementation of this approach in adult populations, relatively few studies have been conducted in child and adolescent populations. Given that children and adolescents are particularly sensitive to the effects of their physical environments and may also be distrustful of outsiders, ecological approaches involving the community as partners, such as CBPR, may be especially useful in this population. ^ Objective. This thesis reviews published studies using a community-based participatory research approach in children and adolescents to assess the appropriateness of this approach in this population. ^ Method. Studies using CBPR in youth populations were identified using Medline and other Internet searches through both MeSH heading and text-word searches. ^ Results. A total of 16 studies were identified and analyzed for this review. Nine of the sixteen studies were experimental or quasi-experimental design, with Asthma being the most commonly studied disease. ^ Conclusions. While many studies using CBPR were not conducted with the level of scientific rigor typically found in clinical trial research, the studies reviewed each contributed to a greater understanding of the problems they investigated. Furthermore, interventional studies provided lasting benefits to communities under study above what would be found in studies using more traditional research approaches. While CBPR may not be appropriate for all research situations due to the time and resources required, we conclude that is a useful approach and should be considered when conducting community-based research for pediatric and adolescent populations.^

Latino perceptions of and barriers to preventive healthcare maintenance in the southwest United States

Between the 1990 and 2000 Censuses, the Latino population accounted for 40% of the increase in the nation’s total population. The growing population of Latinos underscores the importance for understanding factors that influence whether and how Latinos take care of their health. According to the U.S. Department of Human Health Service’s Office of Minority Health (OMH), Latinos are at greater risk for health disparities (2003). Factors such as lack of health insurance and access to preventive care play a major role in limiting Latino use of primary health care (Institute of Medicine, 2005). Other significant barriers to preventive health care maintenance behaviors have been identified in current literature such as primary care physician interaction, self-perceived health status, and socio-cultural beliefs and traditions (Rojas-Guyler, King, Montieth and 2008; Meir, Medina, and Ory, 2007; Black, 1999). Despite these studies, there remains less information regarding interpersonal perceptions, environmental dynamics and individual and cultural attitudes relevant to utilization of healthcare (Rojas-Guyler, King, Montieth and 2008; Aguirre-Molina, Molina and Zambrana, 2001). Understanding the perceptions of Latinos and the barriers to health care could directly affect healthcare delivery. Improved healthcare utilization among Latinos could reduce the long term health consequences of many preventable and manageable diseases. The purpose of this study was to explore Latino perceptions of U.S. health care and desired changes by Latinos in the U.S. healthcare system. The study had several objectives, including to explore perceived barriers to healthcare utilization and the resulting effects on health among Latinos, to describe culturally influenced attitudes about health care and use of health care services among Latinos, and to make recommendations for reducing disparities by improving healthcare and its utilization. The current study utilized data that were collected as part of a larger study to examine multidimensional, cross-cultural issues relevant to interactions between healthcare consumers and providers. Qualitative methods were used to analyze four Spanish-language focus group transcripts to interpret cultural influences on perceptions and beliefs among Latinos. Direct coding of transcript content was carried out by two reviewers, who conducted independent reviews of each transcript. Team members developed and refined thematic categories, positive and negative cases, and example text segments for each theme and sub-theme. Incongruities of interpretations were resolved through extensive discussion. Study participants included 44 self-identified Latino adults (16 male, 28 female) between age 18 and 64 years. Thirty seven (84.1%) of the participants were immigrants. The study population comprised eight ethnic subgroups. While 31% of the participants reported being employed on a full-time basis, only 18.4% had medical insurance that was private or employee sponsored. Five major themes regarding the perceptions and healthcare utilization behaviors of Latinos were consistent across all focus groups and were identified during the analysis. These were: (1) healthcare utilization, experience, and access; (2) organizational and institutional systems; (3) communication and interpersonal interactions between healthcare provider, staff, and patient; (4) Latinos’ perception of their own health status; (5) cultural influences on healthcare utilization, which included an innovation termed culturally-bound locus of control. Healthcare utilization was directly influenced by healthcare experience, access, current health status, and cultural factors and indirectly influenced by organizational systems. There was a strong interdependence among the main themes. The ability to communicate and interact effectively with healthcare providers and navigate healthcare systems (organizational and institutional access) significantly influenced the participant’s health care experience, most often (indirectly) impacting utilization negatively. ^ Research such as this can help to identify those perceptions and attitudes held by Latinos concerning utilization or underutilization of healthcare systems. These data suggest that for healthcare utilization to improve among Latinos, healthcare systems must create more culturally competent environments by providing better language services at the organizational level and more culturally sensitive providers at the interpersonal level. Better understanding of the complex interactions between these impediments can aid intervention developments, and help health providers and researchers in determining appropriate, adequate, and effective measurers of care to better increase overall health of Latinos.^

An empirical model to estimate the demand for primary care in urban settings

Objective. To measure the demand for primary care and its associated factors by building and estimating a demand model of primary care in urban settings.^ Data source. Secondary data from 2005 California Health Interview Survey (CHIS 2005), a population-based random-digit dial telephone survey, conducted by the UCLA Center for Health Policy Research in collaboration with the California Department of Health Services, and the Public Health Institute between July 2005 and April 2006.^ Study design. A literature review was done to specify the demand model by identifying relevant predictors and indicators. CHIS 2005 data was utilized for demand estimation.^ Analytical methods. The probit regression was used to estimate the use/non-use equation and the negative binomial regression was applied to the utilization equation with the non-negative integer dependent variable.^ Results. The model included two equations in which the use/non-use equation explained the probability of making a doctor visit in the past twelve months, and the utilization equation estimated the demand for primary conditional on at least one visit. Among independent variables, wage rate and income did not affect the primary care demand whereas age had a negative effect on demand. People with college and graduate educational level were associated with 1.03 (p < 0.05) and 1.58 (p < 0.01) more visits, respectively, compared to those with no formal education. Insurance was significantly and positively related to the demand for primary care (p < 0.01). Need for care variables exhibited positive effects on demand (p < 0.01). Existence of chronic disease was associated with 0.63 more visits, disability status was associated with 1.05 more visits, and people with poor health status had 4.24 more visits than those with excellent health status. ^ Conclusions. The average probability of visiting doctors in the past twelve months was 85% and the average number of visits was 3.45. The study emphasized the importance of need variables in explaining healthcare utilization, as well as the impact of insurance, employment and education on demand. The two-equation model of decision-making, and the probit and negative binomial regression methods, was a useful approach to demand estimation for primary care in urban settings.^

The association of internet use and depression among spinal cord injury population

The purpose of this study was to exam the relationship between internet use and depression among a population of individuals who have sustained spinal cord injury. This was cross-sectional survey design conducted among spinal cord injury (SCI) patients in the Model Spinal Cord Injury System. We included a total of 1,011 SCI-patients who were interviewed face-to-face or by telephone interview over approximately a three year time period (2004–2006). All data were collected through a telephone survey which included the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) to assess depression. We examined various scales of this survey, included a reduced 3-item scale (items 1, 2 and 6) to avoid the presence of somatic symptoms among SCI patients from influencing classification of depression. The frequency of internet usage was grouped as daily/weekly/monthly/non user. Covariates examined as possible confounders included demographic characteristics, occupational status, educational level, injury type, daily function of living, pain level, self-perceived health status and satisfaction with life. We observed a negative association between the frequency of internet use and the level of depression. Daily use of internet was associated with lower PHQ-9 score and depression; however this association did not reach statistical significance after for the mentioned covariates. In conclusion, the factors related to lower depression in SCI patients who use the internet are complicated. Daily internet usage was associated with lower levels of depression. The accuracy of 3-item scale needs further validation and investigation. Further study of internet usage pattern in SCI patient is recommended. ^

Comparing experience of diabetes care with chronic illness care in the primary care clinic using the Patient Assessment of Chronic Illness Care (PACIC)

Purpose. The overall purpose of the study was to evaluate the patient experience relevant to the Chronic Care Model as measured by the PACIC. Chronic illness care of patients with diabetes was compared to those with other chronic illnesses. In addition, chronic illness care of Hispanics was compared to those of other race/ethnicity. ^ Methods. The setting of this study was 20 primary care practices located in San Antonio, TX. The subjects in this study were consecutive adult patients age >18 yrs. Data was collected via a survey (PACIC) administered to 40-60 consecutive adult patients in each primary care clinic who presented for a scheduled appointment. ^ Results. Patient experience of the Chronic Care Model is different among those with diabetes than those with other chronic diseases: those with diabetes report a higher PACIC score. (P = 0.012) Although Hispanic patients report a higher PACIC score, patient experience of the Chronic Care Model among Hispanic patients is not significantly different than that of patients of other race/ethnicity regardless of chronic disease. (P = 0.053) After controlling for the patient characteristics of age, education, health status, and race/ethnicity, the diabetes status of the patient remains significantly associated with the outcome, the PACIC score. (P = 0.033) ^ Conclusions. Diabetes is associated with a greater experience of the Chronic Care model. Contributing factors to diabetes patients’ greater experience of the Chronic Care Model include the greater heath care use and higher self-care needs unique to individuals with diabetes. Special consideration must be given to the specific needs diabetic patients to ensure effective interventions, higher patient education, greater patient compliance, and lower health care costs. ^

Determining the feasibility and acceptability of a garden-based nutrition curriculum for preschoolers

Obesity rates around the nation have risen to epidemic proportions. Rates of childhood obesity are at very high levels with 24.4% of preschool-aged children in the U.S. currently considered as overweight or obese. The percentage of childhood obesity is much higher in the southern part of the United States as compared to the rest of the nation. Minority populations, especially African American and Hispanic, are affected more than other ethnic groups. Obesity prevention programs are needed targeting young children <6 years of age from minority populations. Currently, there are few obesity prevention programs that have been implemented and evaluated in children <6 years of age. Gardening programs have been successful in improving the health status of elementary school children by increasing fruit and vegetable intake and increasing preferences for healthier food choices. However, there is no evidence of the feasibility and acceptability of a garden-based obesity prevention program among preschoolers. This pretest study, a classroom-based gardening curriculum program with 16 lesson plans and coordinating activities for preschool age children (3-5 years old) enrolled in Head Start, provides the opportunity to address this need. The study included 103 preschoolers from two centers and 9 teachers or teachers' aides. Qualitative data on feasibility and acceptability was collected from process evaluation forms of individual lesson plans and focus groups with teachers. Teacher questionnaires assessed individual teacher characteristics and provided feedback regarding the curriculum. Quantitative measures of teachers' self-efficacy, attitudes, and knowledge pertaining to nutrition were analyzed from pre and post-test surveys. Results revealed this preschool garden-based nutrition curriculum was both feasible and acceptable. The program improved teacher's self-efficacy, knowledge, and attitudes about nutrition, with teacher's confidence in ability to teach a gardening curriculum increasing from a mean score of 2.14 to 3.00 from pre to post test (P value = 0.0046). These results indicate implementing garden-based nutrition lessons within preschools is achievable. Employing garden-based nutrition lessons in the classroom is the first step in teaching children about nutrition and gardening concepts. Constructing gardening beds for more hands-on learning is the next proposed step in the larger parent study of this program.^

A systematic review of literature on socioeconomic disparities in the prevalence of dental caries

Dental caries, also known as tooth decay, are a disease of the oral cavity that affects the tooth structure and leads to the occurrence of cavities in teeth. Dental caries are one of the leading chronic diseases in the population and are very common in childhood. If not treated appropriately, dental caries have debilitating effect on the oral and general health of individuals. ^ Objectives. The aims of this review are to (1) analyze and elucidate the relationship between the social and economic determinants of health like income, education and race/ethnicity and the prevalence of dental caries and (2) identify and understand the pathways/underlying causes through which these factors affect the occurrence of dental caries. This review will provide a foundation for formulation of better oral health policies in future by identifying the key socio-economic factors and pathways affecting the prevalence of dental caries. Knowledge about these socioeconomic factors could be incorporated in the design of future policies and interventions to achieve greater benefits.^ Methods. This review includes information from all pertinent articles, reviews, surveys, reports, peer reviewed literature and web sources that were published after 2000. The selection criterion includes literature focusing on individuals between the ages of 1 to 65 years, and individuals from different subgroups of community based on income, education and race/ethnicity. The analyses of literature include identifying if a relationship between income/education/race and the prevalence of dental caries exists by comparing the prevalence of dental caries in different socio-economic groups. Also included in this review are articles that are relevant to the mechanisms/pathways through which income/education/race affect the prevalence of dental caries.^ Results. Analyses of available literature suggests that disparities in the prevalence of dental caries may be attributed to differences in income, education and race/ethnicity. Higher prevalence of dental caries was observed in African-American and Mexican-American individuals, and in people with low income and low education. The leading pathways through which the socioeconomic factors affect the prevalence of dental caries are the lack of access to dental care, lack of awareness about good oral hygiene beliefs and habits, oral health, inability to afford dental care, lack of social support to maintain oral health and lack of dental insurance.^ Conclusion. Disparities in the prevalence of dental caries exist in various socio-economic groups. The relationship between socio-economic factors and dental caries prevalence should be considered in the development of future policies and interventions that are aimed at reducing the prevalence of dental caries and enhancing oral health status.^

Improving the Quality of Life of spousal caregivers of stroke survivors: A cost effectiveness analysis

Back ground and Purpose. There is a growing consensus among health care researchers that Quality of Life (QoL) is an important outcome and, within the field of family caregiving, cost effectiveness research is needed to determine which programs have the greatest benefit for family members. This study uses a multidimensional approach to measure the cost effectiveness of a multicomponent intervention designed to improve the quality of life of spousal caregivers of stroke survivors. Methods. The CAReS study (Committed to Assisting with Recovery after Stroke) was a 5-year prospective, longitudinal intervention study for 159 stroke survivors and their spousal caregivers upon discharge of the stroke survivor from inpatient rehabilitation to their home. CAReS cost data were analyzed to determine the incremental cost of the intervention per caregiver. The mean values of the quality-of-life predictor variables of the intervention group of caregivers were compared to the mean values of usual care groups found in the literature. Significant differences were then divided into the cost of the intervention per caregiver to calculate the incremental cost effectiveness ratio for each predictor variable. Results. The cost of the intervention per caregiver was approximately $2,500. Statistically significant differences were found between the mean scores for the Perceived Stress and Satisfaction with Life scales. Statistically significant differences were not found between the mean scores for the Self Reported Health Status, Mutuality, and Preparedness scales. Conclusions. This study provides a prototype cost effectiveness analysis on which researchers can build. Using a multidimensional approach to measure QoL, as used in this analysis, incorporates both the subjective and objective components of QoL. Some of the QoL predictor variable scores were significantly different between the intervention and comparison groups, indicating a significant impact of the intervention. The estimated cost of the impact was also examined. In future studies, a scale that takes into account both the dimensions and the weighting each person places on the dimensions of QoL should be used to provide a single QoL score per participant. With participant level cost and outcome data, uncertainty around each cost-effectiveness ratio can be calculated using the bias-corrected percentile bootstrapping method and plotted to calculate the cost-effectiveness acceptability curves.^

HPV vaccine coverage in Texas counties: An application of multilevel, small area estimation

Health departments, research institutions, policy-makers, and healthcare providers are often interested in knowing the health status of their clients/constituents. Without the resources, financially or administratively, to go out into the community and conduct health assessments directly, these entities frequently rely on data from population-based surveys to supply the information they need. Unfortunately, these surveys are ill-equipped for the job due to sample size and privacy concerns. Small area estimation (SAE) techniques have excellent potential in such circumstances, but have been underutilized in public health due to lack of awareness and confidence in applying its methods. The goal of this research is to make model-based SAE accessible to a broad readership using clear, example-based learning. Specifically, we applied the principles of multilevel, unit-level SAE to describe the geographic distribution of HPV vaccine coverage among females aged 11-26 in Texas.^ Multilevel (3 level: individual, county, public health region) random-intercept logit models of HPV vaccination (receipt of ≥ 1 dose Gardasil® ) were fit to data from the 2008 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (outcome and level 1 covariates) and a number of secondary sources (group-level covariates). Sampling weights were scaled (level 1) or constructed (levels 2 & 3), and incorporated at every level. Using the regression coefficients (and standard errors) from the final models, I simulated 10,000 datasets for each regression coefficient from the normal distribution and applied them to the logit model to estimate HPV vaccine coverage in each county and respective demographic subgroup. For simplicity, I only provide coverage estimates (and 95% confidence intervals) for counties.^ County-level coverage among females aged 11-17 varied from 6.8-29.0%. For females aged 18-26, coverage varied from 1.9%-23.8%. Aggregated to the state level, these values translate to indirect state estimates of 15.5% and 11.4%, respectively; both of which fall within the confidence intervals for the direct estimates of HPV vaccine coverage in Texas (Females 11-17: 17.7%, 95% CI: 13.6, 21.9; Females 18-26: 12.0%, 95% CI: 6.2, 17.7).^ Small area estimation has great potential for informing policy, program development and evaluation, and the provision of health services. Harnessing the flexibility of multilevel, unit-level SAE to estimate HPV vaccine coverage among females aged 11-26 in Texas counties, I have provided (1) practical guidance on how to conceptualize and conduct modelbased SAE, (2) a robust framework that can be applied to other health outcomes or geographic levels of aggregation, and (3) HPV vaccine coverage data that may inform the development of health education programs, the provision of health services, the planning of additional research studies, and the creation of local health policies.^

A cross-sectional study of human symptomatology and residential formaldehyde concentrations

The cross-sectional study was performed to quantify the prevalence of symtomatology in residents of mobile homes as a function of indoor formaldehyde concentration. Formaldehyde concentrations were monitored for a seven hour period with an automated wet-chemical colorimetric analyzer. The health status of family members was ascertained by administration of questionnaires and physical exams. This is the first investigation to perform clinical assessments on residents undergoing concurrent exposure assessment in the home.^ Only 22.8% of households eligible for participation chose to cooperate. Monitoring data and health evaluations were obtained from 155 households in four Texas counties. A total of 428 residents (86.1%) were available for examination during the sampling hours. The study population included 45 infants, 126 children, and 257 adults.^ Formaldehyde concentration was not found to be significantly associated with increased risks for symptoms and signs of ocular irritation, dermal anomalies, or malaise. Three associations were identified that warrant further investigation. The relative odds associated with a doubling of formaldehyde concentration was significantly associated with parenchymal rales in adults and children. However, risk was modified by log respirable suspended particulate concentrations. Due to the presence of modification by a continuous variable, prevalence odds ratios (POR) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) for these associations are presented in tables. A doubling of formaldehyde concentration was also associated with an increased risk of perceived tightness in the chest in adults. Prevalence odds ratios are presented in a table due to effect modification by the average number of hours spent indoors on weekdays. Furthermore, a doubling of formaldehyde concentration was associated with an increased risk of drowsiness in children (POR = 2.60; 95% CI 1.04-6.51) and adults (POR = 1.94; 95% CI 1.20-3.14). ^

Satisfaction with medical care among Mexican-Americans (Hispanic HANES, 1982--1984)

This research focussed on the extent to which the characteristics of a sample of 8,554 Mexican-Americans affected their satisfaction with medical care by: (1) describing satisfaction with medical care among the population, (2) examining the relationships between satisfaction with health services and personal characteristics of the population, and (3) comparing the results of the research with the results of studies of personal health services in other times, places, and populations.^ The distribution of sex among this population was close to even with men representing 50.4%, however respondents over age 50 years represent 11.3% of the sample. The highest grade attended was found in the Elementary (37.9%), and 70% responded they have a good health. Ninety-three percent of the sample were attended to within thirty minutes they arrived at their clinic/health center. Eighty-two percent of the sample were "Very Satisfied" with the care they received during their last visit.^ Ten hypotheses were tested in this research. Females tend to be more satisfied than males; age was found to correlate with satisfaction with respondents over 40 years reporting more satisfaction levels; there was no correlation between education and satisfaction with the educated expressing more skepticism about medical care; respondents covered by Medicare or Medicaid were more satisfied; perceived health status rating was highly correlated with satisfaction; respondents who spent less than 30 minutes traveling to the clinic/health center were more satisfied while 82% of respondents who had less than 30 minutes waiting time expressed more satisfaction.^ As remarked by Hulka and Aday that responses to client satisfaction questionnaire often provided socially acceptable answers, the results found in this sample was therefore not surprising. The author recommends that instruments for the collection of information on client satisfaction should be studied and modified where applicable to reduce what John Ware termed Acquiescent Response Set (ARS)--a tendency to agree with statement of opinion regardless of content. ^

Relating one's social support network to one's mid term grade

Much has been written about the relation of social support to health outcomes. Support networks were found to be predictive of health status. Not so clear was the manner in which social support helped the individual to avoid health complications. Whereas some aspects of the support network were protective, others were burdensome. Duties to one's network could serve as a stressor and duties outside one's network might stress the support system itself. Exposure to one's network was associated with certain health risks while disruption in one's social support network was associated with other health risks.^ Many factors contributed to the impact of a social support network upon the individual member: the characteristics of the individual, the individual's role or position within the network, qualities of the network and duties or indebtedness of the individual to the network. This investigation considered the possibility that performance could serve as a stressor in a fashion similar to an exposure to a health hazard.^ Because the literature includes many examples of studies in which the subjects were college students, academic progress is a performance common to most subjects. A profile of the support networks of successful students was contrasted with those of less successful students in this correlational study.^ What was uncovered in this investigation was a very complex web of interrelated constructs. Most aspects of the social support network did not significantly predict academic performance. Only a limited number of characteristics were associated with academic success: the frequency of support, student age, the existence of a 'mentor' within one' s network, and the extent to which one received a predominant source of support. Other factors had a tendency to be negatively correlated with midterm grade, suggesting those factors may impede academic performance.^ Medical status did not predict grades, but was correlated with many aspects of the network. Disruptions in particular parts of one's network were correlated with particular health categories. In fact, disruption in social support was more predictive of academic outcomes than medical complications. Whereas the individual's values were related to the contributing factors, only the individual's satisfaction with certain aspects of the support network were predictive of higher midterm grades in a psychology class. Dissatisfaction was associated with lower grades, suggesting a disruptive effect within the network. Associations among the features of support networks which predicted academic progress were considered. ^

The impact of social support networks on compliance with hypertensive therapeutic regimens among noninstitutionalized black adults

A conceptual framework based on the Health Belief Model was proposed which identified those factors most significant in the prediction of compliance behavior. The hypothesized model was applied to analyze the effects of sociodemographic characteristics, self-assessed health status, and social support networks on compliance with antihypertensive regimens, focusing on black adults.^ The study population was selected from the National Health and Examination Survey II (NHANES II) which produced a sample of 3,957 eligible persons 35-74 years of age.^ The study addressed the following research questions: (a) what is the relationship between demographic variables and self-assessed health status, (b) what is the relationship between social support network and self-assessed health status, (c) what is the compliance, (d) what factors, e.g., demographic characteristics, social support network, self-assessed health status, are most related to compliance, and (e) does the effect of these factors on compliance differ between black and white adults?^ The results of the study found that blacks: (a) had poorer health than whites, and education and income were significantly related to self-assessed health status, (b) the stronger social support networks of blacks, the better their health status, and (c) older blacks and those in poorer health were more likely to comply with recommended treatment. The hypothesized conceptual model for the prediction of compliance behavior was partially substantiated for both blacks and whites.^ Implications for the application of the conceptual model are also discussed. ^

ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF THE DEMAND FOR PRESCRIPTION MEDICINE IN THE UNITED STATES

The purpose of this study was to understand the role of principle economic, sociodemographic and health status factors in determining the likelihood and volume of prescription drug use. Econometric demand regression models were developed for this purpose. Ten explanatory variables were examined: family income, coinsurance rate, age, sex, race, household head education level, size of family, health status, number of medical visits, and type of provider seen during medical visits. The economic factors (family income and coinsurance) were given special emphasis in this study.^ The National Medical Care Utilization and Expenditure Survey (NMCUES) was the data source. The sample represented the civilian, noninstitutionalized residents of the United States in 1980. The sample method used in the survey was a stratified four-stage, area probability design. The sample was comprised of 6,600 households (17,123 individuals). The weighted sample provided the population estimates used in the analysis. Five repeated interviews were conducted with each household. The household survey provided detailed information on the United States health status, pattern of health care utilization, charges for services received, and methods of payments for 1980.^ The study provided evidence that economic factors influenced the use of prescription drugs, but the use was not highly responsive to family income and coinsurance for the levels examined. The elasticities for family income ranged from -.0002 to -.013 and coinsurance ranged from -.174 to -.108. Income has a greater influence on the likelihood of prescription drug use, and coinsurance rates had an impact on the amount spent on prescription drugs. The coinsurance effect was not examined for the likelihood of drug use due to limitations in the measurement of coinsurance. Health status appeared to overwhelm any effects which may be attributed to family income or coinsurance. The likelihood of prescription drug use was highly dependent on visits to medical providers. The volume of prescription drug use was highly dependent on the health status, age, and whether or not the individual saw a general practitioner. ^