Effects of large-scale human land use on Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus L.) populations in Finland

The Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus L.) is often used as a focal species for landscape ecological studies: the minimum size for its lekking area is 300 ha, and the annual home range for an individual may cover 30 80 km2. In Finland, Capercaillie populations have decreased by approximately 40 85%, with the declines likely to have started in the 1940s. Although the declines have partly stabilized from the 1990s onwards, it is obvious that the negative population trend was at least partly caused by changes in human land use. The aim of this thesis was to study the connections between human land use and Capercaillie populations in Finland, using several spatial and temporal scales. First, the effect of forest age structure on Capercaillie population trends was studied in 18 forestry board districts in Finland, during 1965 1988. Second, the abundances of Capercaillie and Moose (Alces alces L.) were compared in terms of several land-use variables on a scale of 50 × 50 km grids and in five regions in Finland. Third, the effects of forest cover and fine-grain forest fragmentation on Capercaillie lekking area persistence were studied in three study locations in Finland, on 1000 and 3000 m spatial scales surrounding the leks. The analyses considering lekking areas were performed with two definitions for forest: > 60 and > 152 m3ha 1 of timber volume. The results show that patterns and processes at large spatial scales strongly influence Capercaillie in Finland. In particular, in southwestern and eastern Finland, high forest cover and low human impact were found to be beneficial for this species. Forest cover (> 60 m3ha 1 of timber) surrounding the lekking sites positively affected lekking area persistence only at the larger landscape scale (3000 m radius). The effects of older forest classes were hard to assess due to scarcity of older forests in several study areas. Young and middle-aged forest classes were common in the vicinity of areas with high Capercaillie abundances especially in northern Finland. The increase in the amount of younger forest classes did not provide a good explanation for Capercaillie population decline in 1965 1988. In addition, there was no significant connection between mature forests (> 152 m3ha 1 of timber) and lekking area persistence in Finland. It seems that in present-day Finnish landscapes, area covered with old forest is either too scarce to efficiently explain the abundance of Capercaillie and the persistence of the lekking areas, or the effect of forest age is only important when considering smaller spatial scales than the ones studied in this thesis. In conclusion, larger spatial scales should be considered for assessing the future Capercaillie management. According to the proposed multi-level planning, the first priority should be to secure the large, regional-scale forest cover, and the second priority should be to maintain fine-grained, heterogeneous structure within the separate forest patches. A management unit covering hundreds of hectares, or even tens or hundreds of square kilometers, should be covered, which requires regional-level land-use planning and co-operation between forest owners.

Marked increase in proton pump inhibitors use in Australia

Objectives: To examine the trends in the prescribing of subsidised proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) and histamine receptor antagonists (H2RAs), in the Australian population from 1995 to 2006 to encourage discussion regarding appropriate clinical use. PPIs and H2RAs are the second highest drug cost to the publicly subsidised Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS). Design: Government data on numbers of subsidised scripts, quantity and doses for PPIs and H2RAs were analysed by gender and age, dose and indication. Main outcome measure: Drug utilisation as DDD [defined daily dose]/1000 population/day. Results: The use of combined PPIs increased by 1318%. Utilisation increased substantially after the relaxation of the subsidised indications for PPIs in 2001. Omeprazole had the largest market share but was substituted by its S-enantiomer esomeprazole after its introduction in 2002. There was considerable use in the elderly with the peak use being in those aged 80 years and over. The utilisation of H2RAs declined 72% over 12 years. Conclusions: PPI use has increased substantially, not only due to substitution of H2RAs but to expansion in the overall market. Utilisation does not appear to be commensurate with prevalence of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD) nor with prescribing guidelines for PPIs, with significant financial costs to patients and PBS. This study encourages clinical discussion regarding quality use of these medicines. © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Molecular epidemiology of human rhinoviruses

The first part of this work investigates the molecular epidemiology of a human enterovirus (HEV), echovirus 30 (E-30). This project is part of a series of studies performed in our research team analyzing the molecular epidemiology of HEV-B viruses. A total of 129 virus strains had been isolated in different parts of Europe. The sequence analysis was performed in three different genomic regions: 420 nucleotides (nt) in the VP4/VP2 capsid protein coding region, the entire VP1 capsid protein coding gene of 876 nt, and 150 nt in the VP1/2A junction region. The analysis revealed a succession of dominant sublineages within a major genotype. The temporally earlier genotypes had been replaced by a genetically homogenous lineage that has been circulating in Europe since the late 1970s. The same genotype was found by other research groups in North America and Australia. Globally, other cocirculating genetic lineages also exist. The prevalence of a dominant genotype makes E-30 different from other previously studied HEVs, such as polioviruses and coxsackieviruses B4 and B5, for which several coexisting genetic lineages have been reported. The second part of this work deals with molecular epidemiology of human rhinoviruses (HRVs). A total of 61 field isolates were studied in the 420-nt stretch in the capsid coding region of VP4/VP2. The isolates were collected from children under two years of age in Tampere, Finland. Sequences from the clinical isolates clustered in the two previously known phylogenetic clades. Seasonal clustering was found. Also, several distinct serotype-like clusters were found to co-circulate during the same epidemic season. Reappearance of a cluster after disappearing for a season was observed. The molecular epidemiology of the analyzed strains turned out to be complex, and we decided to continue our studies of HRV. Only five previously published complete genome sequences of HRV prototype strains were available for analysis. Therefore, all designated HRV prototype strains (n=102) were sequenced in the VP4/VP2 region, and the possibility of genetic typing of HRV was evaluated. Seventy-six of the 102 prototype strains clustered in HRV genetic group A (HRV-A) and 25 in group B (HRV-B). Serotype 87 clustered separately from other HRVs with HEV species D. The field strains of HRV represented as many as 19 different genotypes, as judged with an approximate demarcation of a 20% nt difference in the VP4/VP2 region. The interserotypic differences of HRV were generally similar to those reported between different HEV serotypes (i.e. about 20%), but smaller differences, less than 10%, were also observed. Because some HRV serotypes are genetically so closely related, we suggest that the genetic typing be performed using the criterion "the closest prototype strain". This study is the first systematic genetic characterization of all known HRV prototype strains, providing a further taxonomic proposal for classification of HRV. We proposed to divide the genus Human rhinoviruses into HRV-A and HRV-B. The final part of the work comprises a phylogenetic analysis of a subset (48) of HRV prototype strains and field isolates (12) in the nonstructural part of the genome coding for the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (3D). The proposed division of the HRV strains in the species HRV-A and HRV-B was also supported by 3D region. HRV-B clustered closer to HEV species B, C, and also to polioviruses than to HRV-A. Intraspecies variation within both HRV-A and HRV-B was greater in the 3D coding region than in the VP4/VP2 coding region, in contrast to HEV. Moreover, the diversity of HRV in 3D exceeded that of HEV. One group of HRV-A, designated HRV-A', formed a separate cluster outside other HRV-A in the 3D region. It formed a cluster also in the capsid region, but located within HRV-A. This may reflect a different evolutionary history of distinct genomic regions among HRV-A. Furthermore, the tree topology within HRV-A in the 3D region differed from that in the VP4/VP2, suggesting possible recombination events in the evolution of the strains. No conflicting phylogenies were observed in any of the 12 field isolates. Possible recombination was further studied using the Similarity and Bootscanning analyses of the complete genome sequences of HRV available in public databases. Evidence for recombination among HRV-A was found, as HRV2 and HRV39 showed higher similarity in the nonstructural part of the genome. Whether HRV2 and HRV39 strains - and perhaps also some other HRV-A strains not yet completely sequenced - are recombinants remains to be determined.

Unwanted lighting effects at night in Australia

This thesis brings together different scientific and engineering disciplines, as well as current legislation, on the subject of unwanted night-time lighting effects on humans and the biosphere. The assessment criteria of Australian Standard AS4282-1997 Control of the obtrusive effects of outdoor lighting are reviewed and criteria incorporating the quantity, quality, spectral composition of light, and exposure time, are proposed to improve light engineering practice. The immediate direct concerns of humans are considered as well as the effects on biota generally in the environment, particularly as outdoor artificial lighting proliferation has the potential to change the environment for human habitation in the longer term.

The assessment of ecological condition in south-east Queensland, Australia: An evaluation of reliability across variable environments and surrogate efficacy for biodiversity values

Multimetric ecological condition assessment has become an important biodiversity management tool. This study was the first to examine the reliability of these ecological surrogates across variable environments, and the implications for surrogate efficacy. It was demonstrated that through strategic application and design of the multimetric ecological condition index, the effects of environmental gradients and disturbance regimes can be mitigated, and that ecological condition assessment may serve as a scientifically rigorous approach for conservation planning.

Adaptation of the Australian core food groups to enable planning of vegan and lactovegetarian diets

This work demonstrates how the Australian core food groups system can be modified to enable the planning of vegan and lactovegetarian diets as well as omnivorous diets. In the modified version the cereals, vegetables and fruits groups remain the same as in the core food groups system, while the meat group is replaced with legumes, soya products, nuts and seeds. The milk group becomes milk or fortified soya milk, to allow for both lactovegetarian and vegan diets. The core food groups standard of 70% of the recommended dietary intake was adopted as a target for determining recommendations on the minimum number of serves from each food group. As found in the development of the core food groups system, zinc was the most limiting nutrient. Vitamin B 12 and calcium were other limiting nutrients in the vegan and lactovegetarian guides. The number of serves from each group required to meet 70% of the applicable recommended dietary intake has been calculated for children from four years old, adult men and women and pregnant and lactating women. It was found that the number of serves from each food group required in the vegan and lactovegetarian planning guides was in most cases similar to the number of serves of corresponding core food groups specified for a particular population group. This suggests that the vegan and lactovegetarian planning guides could be incorporated into a modified core food groups planning guide. Such a guide would cater for the general omnivorous population as well as for those seeking to avoid meat and/or dairy products. (Aust J Nutr Diet 1999:56:22-30) Key words: vegan, vegetarian, food guide, food groups, dietary planning.

Addressing the challenges of road safety in India: Are there lessons from Australia?

An invited panel presentation on "Road Safety: Challenges and Way outs" Overview - Road trauma trends in Australia - Key features of Australia’s approach to road safety - Role of university-based research centres in promoting road safety in Australia - UN Decade of Action for Road Safety

Human rights performance disclosure by companies having operations in high risk countries: Evidence from Australian mineral sector

The aim of this study is to explore whether Australian mineral companies operating in high human rights risk countries provide more human rights disclosures than companies operating in low risk countries. A content analysis instrument containing 88 specific human rights performance items derived from a number of international human rights guidelines has been developed to investigate the annual reports, social responsibility reports and corporate websites of the top 50 Australian mineral companies (2010/2011). The findings show that human rights performance disclosures by companies with operations in high human rights risk countries are significantly higher than companies with operations in the low risk countries. By disclosing extended human rights performance information, companies operating in high risk countries appear to ease community concerns about human rights violations. The finding is consistent with legitimacy theory which posits that organisations respond to community concerns in relation to particular social issues.

Optimisation techniques for planning automatic under frequency load shedding in New Zealand’s power system

Electricity generation is vital in developed countries to power the many mechanical and electrical devices that people require. Unfortunately electricity generation is costly. Though electricity can be generated it cannot be stored efficiently. Electricity generation is also difficult to manage because exact demand is unknown from one instant to the next. A number of services are required to manage fluctuations in electricity demand, and to protect the system when frequency falls too low. A current approach is called automatic under frequency load shedding (AUFLS). This article proposes new methods for optimising AUFLS in New Zealand’s power system. The core ideas were developed during the 2015 Maths and Industry Study Group (MISG) in Brisbane, Australia. The problem has been motivated by Transpower Limited, a company that manages New Zealand’s power system and transports bulk electricity from where it is generated to where it is needed. The approaches developed in this article can be used in electrical power systems anywhere in the world.

Performance based planning in Queensland : A case of unintended plan-making outcomes

Performance based planning (PBP) is purported to be a viable alternative to traditional zoning. The implementation of PBP ranges between pure approaches that rely on predetermined quantifiable performance standards to determine land use suitability, and hybrid approaches that rely on a mix of activity based zones in addition to prescriptive and subjective standards. Jurisdictions in the USA, Australia and New Zealand have attempted this type of land use regulation with varying degrees of success. Despite the adoption of PBP legislation in these jurisdictions, this paper argues that a lack of extensive evaluation means that PBP is not well understood and the purported advantages of this type of planning are rarely achieved in practice. Few empirical studies have attempted to examine how PBP has been implemented in practice. In Queensland, Australia, the Integrated Planning Act 1997 (IPA) operated as Queensland's principal planning legislation between March 1998 and December 2009. While the IPA did not explicitly use the term performance based planning, the Queensland's planning system is widely considered to be performance based in practice. Significantly, the IPA prevented Local Government from prohibiting development or use and the term zone was absent from the legislation. How plan-making would be advanced under the new planning regime was not clear, and as a consequence local governments produced a variety of different plan-making approaches to comply with the new legislative regime. In order to analyse this variation the research has developed a performance adoption spectrum to classify plans ranging between pure and hybrid perspectives of PBP. The spectrum compares how land use was regulated in seventeen IPA plans across Queensland. The research found that hybrid plans predominated, and that over time a greater reliance on risk adverse drafting approaches created a quasi-prohibition plan, the exact opposite of what was intended by the IPA. This paper concludes that the drafting of the IPA and absence of plan-making guidance contributed to lack of shared understanding about the intended direction of the new planning system and resulted in many administrative interpretations of the legislation. It was a planning direction that tried too hard to be different, and as a result created a perception of land use risk and uncertainty that caused a return to more prescriptive and inflexible plan-making methods.

Water quality: Indicators, human impact and environmental health

This book provides an overview of state of the art assessments of water quality; with an understanding how water quality is affected, and improving water quality for irrigation, drinking and recreation activities.

(Failed) voluntary euthanasia law reform in Australia: Two decades of trends, models and politics

Within Australia, there have been many attempts to pass voluntary euthanasia (VE) or physician-assisted suicide (PAS) legislation. From 16 June 1993 until the date of writing, 51 Bills have been introduced into Australian parliaments dealing with legalising VE or PAS. Despite these numerous attempts, the only successful Bill was the Rights of the Terminally Ill Act 1995 (NT), which was enacted in the Northern Territory, but a short time later overturned by the controversial Euthanasia Laws Act 1997 (Cth). Yet, in stark contrast to the significant political opposition, for decades Australian public opinion has overwhelmingly supported law reform legalising VE or PAS. While there is ongoing debate in Australia, both through public discourse and scholarly publications, about the merits and dangers of reform in this field, there has been remarkably little analysis of the numerous legislative attempts to reform the law, and the context in which those reform attempts occurred. The aim of this article is to better understand the reform landscape in Australia over the past two decades. The information provided in this article will better equip Australians, both politicians and the general public, to have a more nuanced understanding of the political context in which the euthanasia debate has been and is occurring. It will also facilitate a more informed debate in the future.

What if tax reform was a fundamental human right?

As an election looms in Australia, the tax debate continues unabated. Self-interest abounds. When we remove self-interest, we are often reduced to standard design principles for a taxation system. Lost in this discussion is the fundamental purpose of tax, which is to finance government expenditure. Most would argue that tax revenue should be sufficient to meet basic economic and social needs of the community. But how does a community determine what these basic economic and social needs should be? One way is by using a human rights framework. This can provide guidance for both developing and developed countries considering tax reform.

Hospital social work in Australia: Emerging trends or more of the same?

Social work in health care has been established for more than 100 years and is one of the largest areas of practice for social workers. Over time, demographic changes and growth in the aging population, increased longevity rates, an explosion in rates of chronic illness together with rapidly increasing cost of health care have created serious challenges for acute hospitals and health social workers. This article reviews the Australian health care system and policies with particular emphasis on the public hospital system. It then examines current hospital social work roles, including the continued role in discharge planning and expanding responsibility for emerging client problems, such as patient complexity, legal, and carer issues. The article concludes with a discussion of evolving issues and challenges facing health social work to ensure that social work remain relevant within this practice context.