The performance of irrigated mixtures of tall fescue, ryegrass and white clover in subtropical Australia. 1. The effects of sowing mixture combinations, nitrogen and oversowing on establishment, productivity, botanical composition and persistence.

In the subtropics of Australia, the ryegrass component of irrigated perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) - white clover (Trifolium repens) pastures declines by approximately 40% in the summer following establishment, being replaced by summer-active C4 grasses. Tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) is more persistent than perennial ryegrass and might resist this invasion, although tall fescue does not compete vigorously as a seedling. This series of experiments investigated the influence of ryegrass and tall fescue genotype, sowing time and sowing mixture as a means of improving tall fescue establishment and the productivity and persistence of tall fescue, ryegrass and white clover-based mixtures in a subtropical environment. Tall fescue frequency at the end of the establishment year decreased as the number of companion species sown in the mixture increased. Neither sowing mixture combinations nor sowing rates influenced overall pasture yield (of around 14 t/ha) in the establishment year but had a significant effect on botanical composition and component yields. Perennial ryegrass was less competitive than short-rotation ryegrass, increasing first-year yields of tall fescue by 40% in one experiment and by 10% in another but total yield was unaffected. The higher establishment-year yield (3.5 t/ha) allowed Dovey tall fescue to compete more successfully with the remaining pasture components than Vulcan (1.4 t/ha). Sowing 2 ryegrass cultivars in the mixture reduced tall fescue yields by 30% compared with a single ryegrass (1.6 t/ha), although tall fescue alone achieved higher yields (7.1 t/ha). Component sowing rate had little influence on composition or yield. Oversowing the ryegrass component into a 6-week-old sward of tall fescue and white clover improved tall fescue, white clover and overall yields in the establishment year by 83, 17 and 11%, respectively, but reduced ryegrass yields by 40%. The inclusion of red (T. pratense) and Persian (T. resupinatum) clovers and chicory (Cichorium intybus) increased first-year yields by 25% but suppressed perennial grass and clover components. Yields were generally maintained at around 12 t/ha/yr in the second and third years, with tall fescue becoming dominant in all 3 experiments. The lower tall fescue seeding rate used in the first experiment resulted in tall fescue dominance in the second year following establishment, whereas in Experiments 2 and 3 dominance occurred by the end of the first year. Invasion by the C4 grasses was relatively minor (<10%) even in the third year. As ryegrass plants died, tall fescue and, to a lesser extent, white clover increased as a proportion of the total sward. Treatment effects continued into the second, but rarely the third, year and mostly affected the yield of one of the components rather than total cumulative yield. Once tall fescue became dominant, it was difficult to re-introduce other pasture components, even following removal of foliage and moderate renovation. Severe renovation (reducing the tall fescue population by at least 30%) seems a possible option for redressing this situation.

Ethical values and the global carbon integrity system

There are many excellent books on climate justice and ethics, and their theorizing is a crucial and natural step in moving towards a justified response to this urgent problem. However, the purpose of this book lies elsewhere; it explores how ethical values can and should work in driving and structuring the global carbon integrity system.

Mapping the integrity of differential obligations within the United Nations framework convention on climate change

This chapter unpacks public institutional integrity concepts through an examination of differential obligations within the global climate regime.

Evidence for extensive population structure in the white-spotted eagle ray within the Indo-Pacific inferred from mitochondrial gene sequences

The white-spotted eagle ray Aetobatus narinari is a species complex that occurs circumglobally throughout warm-temperate waters. Aetobatus narinari is semi-pelagic and large (up to 300 cm disc width), suggesting high dispersal capabilities and gene flow on a wide spatial scale. Sequence data from two mitochondrial genes, cytochrome b (cytb) and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 4 (ND4), were used to determine the genetic variability within and among 18 sampling locations in the central Indo-Pacific biogeographical region. Populations in the Indo-Pacific were highly genetically structured with c. 70% of the total genetic variation found among three geographical regions (East China Sea, Southeast Asia and Australia). FST was 0.64 for cytb and 0.53 for ND4, with φST values being even larger, that is, 0.78 for cytb and 0.65 for ND4. This high-level genetic partitioning provides strong evidence against extensive gene flow in A. narinari. The degree of genetic population structuring in the Indo-Pacific was similar to that found on a global scale. Global FST was 0.63 for cytb and 0.57 for ND4, and global φST values were 0.94 for cytb and 0.82 for ND4. This suggests that the A. narinari complex may be more speciose than the two or three species proposed to date. Further sampling and genetic analyses are likely to uncover the ‘evolutionarily significant’ and ‘management’ units that are critical to determine the susceptibilities of individual populations to regional fishing pressures and to provide advice on management options. Network analyses showed a close genetic relationship between haplotypes from the central Indo-Pacific and South Africa, providing support for a proposed dispersal pathway from the possible centre of origin of the A. narinari species complex in the Indo-Pacific into the Atlantic Ocean.

Characterisation of sweetpotato from Papua New Guinea and Australia: Physicochemical, pasting and gelatinisation properties.

The physicochemical and functional properties of flours from 25 Papua New Guinean and Australian sweetpotato cultivars were evaluated. The cultivars (white-, orange-, cream-, and purple-fleshed, and with dry matter, from 15 to 28 g/100 g), were obovate, oblong, elliptic, curved, irregular in shape, and essentially thin-cortexed (1-2 mm). Flour yield was less than 90 g/100 g solids, while starch, protein, amylose, water absorption and solubility indices, as well as total sugars, varied significantly (p < 0.05). Potassium, sodium, calcium, and phosphorus were the major minerals measured, and there were differences in the pasting properties, which showed four classes of shear-thinning and shear-thickening behaviours. Differential scanning calorimetry showed single-stage gelatinisation behaviour, with cultivar-dependent temperatures (61-84 degrees C) and enthalpies (12-27 J/g dry starch). Oval-, round- and angular-shaped granules were observed with a scanning electron microscope, while X-ray diffraction revealed an A-type diffraction pattern in the cultivars, with about 30% crystallinity. This study shows a wide range of sweetpotato properties, reported for the first time.

Near infrared spectroscopy as a rapid non-invasive tool for agricultural and industrial process management with special reference to avocado and sandalwood industries

Near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) can play a vital role as a cost effective, rapid, non-invasive, reproducible diagnostic tool for many environmental management, agricultural and industrial waste water monitoring applications. In this paper we highlight the ability of NIRS technology to be used as a diagnostic tool in agricultural and environmental applications through the successful assessment of Fourier Transform NIRS to predict α santalol in sandalwood chip samples, and maturity of ‘Hass’ avocado fruit based on dry matter content. Presented at the Third International Conference on Challenges in Environmental Science & Engineering, CESE-2010. 26 September – 1 October 2010, The Sebel, Cairns, Queensland, Australia.

Understanding the line managers’ HRM role expectations: Does size matter?

Recent years have witnessed burgeoning interest in the line managers' contribution to HRM effectiveness. This effort requires organizations to consider important contextual conditions to ensure the desired organizational outcomes. This paper explores the significance of the organization size in understanding the line managers' involvement in HRM activities. Two case studies were conducted, one in a large and another in a small airport involving key members of the airport management who were closely related to the line managers' HRM role. Content analysis was employed to analyze data from the interviews and written documents. While there were many similarities in the line managers' HRM role, the differences in the line managers' HRM role expectations are also found to be related to differences in the size of the organization. More responsibility is expected from line managers in the large airport as compared to the small airport. This finding has important implications in aligning the HRM strategy and organizational outcomes through the line management contribution.

Portrait of Albert Einstein in tempera (black and white) on cardboard Artworks

Digital Image

White shark (Carcharodon carcharias) microsatellite genotypes (six loci) from regions along Australia's southern and eastern coastline.

Despite international protection of white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias), important conservation parameters such as abundance, population structure and genetic diversity are largely unknown. The tissue of 97 predominately juvenile white sharks sampled from spatially distant eastern and southwestern Australian coastlines was sequenced for the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region and genotyped with six nuclear-encoded microsatellite loci. MtDNA population structure was found between the eastern and southwestern coasts (FST = 0.142, p < 0.001), implying female natal philopatry. This concords with recent satellite and acoustic tracking findings which suggest the sustained presence of discrete east coast nursery areas. Furthermore, population subdivision was found between the same regions with biparentally inherited microsatellite markers (FST = 0.009, p <0.05), suggesting that males may also exhibit some degree of reproductive philopatry. Five sharks captured along the east coast had mtDNA haplotypes that resembled western Indian Ocean sharks more closely than Australian/New Zealand sharks, suggesting that transoceanic dispersal or migration resulting in breeding may occur sporadically. Our most robust estimate of contemporary genetic effective population size was low and below the threshold at which adaptive potential may be lost. For a variety of reasons, these contemporary estimates were at least one, possibly two orders of magnitude below our historical effective size estimates. Further population decline could expose these genetically isolated populations to detrimental genetic effects. Regional Australian white shark conservation management units should be implemented until genetic population structure, size and diversity can be investigated in more detail. Reference: Blower, D. C., Pandolfi, J. M., Gomez-Cabrera, M. del C., Bruce, B. D. & Ovenden, J. R. (In press - April 2012). Population genetics of Australian white sharks reveals fine-scale spatial structure, transoceanic dispersal events and low effective population sizes. Marine Ecology Progress Series.

The Application of Near Infrared Spectroscopy for the Assessment of Avocado Quality Attributes, Infrared Spectroscopy. Chapter 14

Quality and safety evaluation of agricultural products has become an increasingly important consideration in market/commercial viability and systems for such evaluations are now demanded by customers, including distributors and retailers. Unfortunately, most horticultural products struggle with delivering adequate and consistent quality to the consumer. Removing inconsistencies and providing what the consumer expects is a key factor for retaining and expanding both domestic and international markets. Most commercial quality classification systems for fruit and vegetables are based on external features of the product, for example: shape, colour, size, weight and blemishes. However, the external appearance of most fruit is generally not an accurate guide to the internal or eating quality of the fruit. Internal quality of fruit is currently subjectively judged on attributes such as volatiles, firmness, and appearance. Destructive subjective measures such as internal flesh colour, or objective measures such as extraction of juice to measure sweetness (oBrix) or assessment of dry matter (DM) content are also used, although obviously not for every fruit – just a sample to represent the whole consignment. For avocado fruit, external colour is not a maturity characteristic, and its smell is too weak and appears later in its maturity stage (Gaete-Garreton et al., 2005). Since maturity is a major component of avocado quality and palatability, it is important to harvest mature fruit, so as to ensure that fruit will ripen properly and have acceptable eating quality. Currently, commercial avocado maturity estimation is based on destructive assessment of the %DM, and sometimes percent oil, both of which are highly correlated with maturity (Clark et al., 2003; Mizrach & Flitsanov, 1999). Avocados Australia Limited (AAL (2008)) recommend a minimum maturity standard for its growers of 23 %DM (greater than 10% oil content) for the ‘Hass’ cultivar, although consumer studies indicate a preference for at least 25 %DM (Harker et al., 2007).

Rotary veneering of plantation-grown spotted gum (Corymbia citriodora subsp. variegata) and Dunn's white gum (Eucalyptus dunnii)

This report evaluates the wood and veneer properties of plantation-grown spotted gum (Corymbia citriodora subsp. variegata, or CCV) and Dunn's white gum (Eucalyptus dunnii), grown at different stockings, in thinning trials near Ellangowan in north-east New South Wales (mean annual rainfall 1050 mm) and Kingaroy in south-east Queensland (mean annual rainfall 873 mm). Thinning trials were established at age seven years. Both species showed a significant increase in stem diameter growth of the dominant trees in response to thinning. At age 10 years, trees from the unthinned (950–1270 stems ha-1) and 300 stems ha-1 treatments were selected for veneering. Five dominant trees were felled from each combination of species x sites x thinning treatment. Diameter at breast height over bark of the selected trees ranged from 20 cm to 27 cm at Ellangowan, and 19 cm to 26 cm at Kingaroy. From each tree, 1.5 m long billets were removed at two positions: a butt billet from 0.3–1.8 m above ground and a top billet from approximately 5.5–7.0 m. Log end splitting was assessed 24 hours after harvesting and again after steaming, approximately four days after harvesting. Disks from just above both billets were collected for assessment of wood properties. Billets were peeled on a spindleless veneer lathe to produce a full veneer ribbon with a target green thickness of 2.8 to 3.0 mm. The 1.55 m wide (tangential dimension) veneer sheets were dried and graded according to AS/NZ Standard 2269:2008, which describes four veneer grades. Veneer samples taken along the length of the veneer ribbon, at regular intervals of 1.55 m, were tested for stiffness, shrinkage and density. Veneer length measurements were used to calculate the radial distance of each sample from the central axis of the billet. Overall veneer gross recoveries ranged from 50% to 70%. They were significantly lower at the Kingaroy site, for both species. The veneer recoveries achieved were 2–3 times higher than typical green off saw recoveries from small plantation hardwood logs of similar diameter. Most of the veneer recovered was classified as D-grade. CCV trees from the Ellangowan site yielded up to 38% of the better C-grade and higher grade veneers. The main limiting factors that prevented veneer from meeting higher grades were the presence of kino defects and encased knots. Splits in E. dunnii veneer also contributed to reduced grade quality. Log end splits were higher for E. dunnii than for CCV, and logs from Ellangowan exhibited more severe splitting. Split index was generally higher for top than for butt billets. Split index was strongly correlated with the average veneer grade from corresponding billets. The Ellangowan site, where rainfall was higher and trees grew faster, yielded significantly denser and stiffer veneers than did the drier sites near Kingaroy, where tree growth was slower. The difference was more pronounced for E. dunnii than for CCV. Differences in measured wood properties between thinned and unthinned treatments were generally small and not significant. On average, 10% of billet volume was lost during the peeling rounding-up process. Much of the wood laid down following thinning was removed during rounding-up, meaning the effect of thinning on veneer properties could not be effectively assessed. CCV was confirmed as having high veneer density and very good veneer stiffness, exceeding 15 GPa, making it very suitable for structural products. E. dunnii also demonstrated good potential as a useful structural plywood resource, achieving stiffness above 10 GPa. Veneer stiffness and density in CCV increased from pith to bark at both sites, while for E. dunnii there was a radial increase in these properties at the Ellangowan site only. At the drier Kingaroy site, veneer stiffness and density declined from mid-radius to the log periphery. This may be associated with prolonged drought from 2005 to 2009, corresponding to the later years of tree growth at the Kingaroy site. CCV appeared to be less sensitive to drought conditions. Standing tree acoustic velocity, determined by the Fakopp time-of-flight method, provided a reliable prediction of average veneer stiffness for both species (R2=0.78 for CCV and R2=0.90 for E. dunnii) suggesting that the Fakopp method may be a useful indicator of tree and stand quality, in terms of veneer stiffness in standing trees.

Temperature sensitivity of soil organic matter decomposition in boreal soils

The temperature sensitivity of decomposition of different soil organic matter (SOM) fractions was studied with laboratory incubations using 13C and 14C isotopes to differentiate between SOM of different age. The quality of SOM and the functionality and composition of microbial communities in soils formed under different climatic conditions were also studied. Transferring of organic layers from a colder to a warmer climate was used to assess how changing climate, litter input and soil biology will affect soil respiration and its temperature sensitivity. Together, these studies gave a consistent picture on how warming climate will affect the decomposition of different SOM fractions in Finnish forest soils: the most labile C was least temperature sensitive, indicating that it is utilized irrespective of temperature. The decomposition of intermediate C, with mean residence times from some years to decades, was found to be highly temperature sensitive. Even older, centennially cycling C was again less temperature sensitive, indicating that different stabilizing mechanisms were limiting its decomposition even at higher temperatures. Because the highly temperature sensitive, decadally cycling C, forms a major part of SOM stock in the organic layers of the studied forest soils, these results mean that these soils could lose more carbon during the coming years and decades than estimated earlier. SOM decomposition in boreal forest soils is likely to increase more in response to climate warming, compared to temperate or tropical soils, also because the Q10 is temperature dependent. In the northern soils the warming will occur at a lower temperature range, where Q10 is higher, and a similar increase in temperature causes a higher relative increase in respiration rates. The Q10 at low temperatures was found to be inversely related to SOM quality. At higher temperatures respiration was increasingly limited by low substrate availability.

The integrity of sperm chromatin in young tropical composite bulls

Sperm chromatin fragmentation is associated with subfertility, but its relationship with age progression in young bulls is poorly understood. The objective was to assess sperm chromatin fragmentation during the early post-pubertal development of 20 tropical composite bulls, using a sperm chromatin structure assay (SCSA) and sperm-bos-halomax (SBH). Bulls were subjected to bull breeding soundness evaluation (BBSE) at mean ages of 13, 18, and 24 mo. Traits measured included liveweight (WT), body condition score (BCS) and scrotal circumference (SC). Semen samples were collected by electroejaculation and assessed for mass activity (MA), motility (Mot), concentration (conc), sperm morphology and chromatin fragmentation. Concentration (r = 0.34, P = 0.0076), Mot (r = 0.36, P = 0.0041) and percentage of morphologic normal sperm (percent normal sperm (PNS); r = 0.31, P = 0.0132) were positively correlated with age. The percentage of sperm with proximal droplets (PD) was negatively correlated with age (r = -0.28, P = 0.0348), whereas neither SCSA nor SBH results were significantly correlated with age. The percentage of sperm with chromatin fragmentation using SCSA was correlated with PNS (r = -0.53, P < 0.0001), the percentage of sperm with head abnormalities (r = 0.68, P < 0.0001) and the percentage of intact sperm (Int) with SBH (r = -0.26, P = 0.0456). In summary, for assessment of sperm chromatin fragmentation, samples could be equally collected at 13, 18 or 24 mo of age, as results did not vary with age. (c) 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.