Analysis of 'APN' naphthenic acids by high temperature gas chromatoagraphy and high performance liquid chromatography

Examination by high temperature GC (HTGC) of the methyl esters of the so-called 'ARN' naphthenic acids from crude oils of North Sea UK, Norwegian Sea and West African oilfields revealed the distributions of resolved 4-8 ring C-80 tetra acids and trace amounts of other acids. Whilst all three oils contained apparently the same the proportions of each differed, possibly reflecting the growth tempe acids, ratures of the archaebacteria from which the acids are assumed to have originated. The structures of the 4, 5, 7 and 8 ring acids are tentatively assigned by comparison with the known 6 ring acid and related natural products and an HPLC method for the isolation of the individual acids is described. ESI-MS of individual acids isolated by preparative HPLC established the elution order of the 4-8 ring acids on the HPLC and HTGC systems and revealed the presence of previously unreported acids tentatively identified as C-81 and C-82 7 and 8 ring analogues.

Crumpet structures: experimental and modelling studies

Crumpets are made by heating fermented batter on a hot plate at around 230°C. The characteristic structure dominated by vertical pores develops rapidly: structure has developed throughout around 75% of the product height within 30s, which is far faster than might be expected from transient heat conduction through the batter. Cooking is complete within around 3 min. Image analysis based on results from X-ray tomography shows that the voidage fraction is approximately constant and that there is continual coalescence between the larger pores throughout the product although there is also a steady level of small bubbles trapped within the solidified batter. We report here experimental studies which shed light on some of the mechanisms responsible for this structure, together with some models of key phenomena.Three aspects are discussed here: the role of gas (carbon dioxide and nitrogen) nuclei in initiating structure development; convective heat transfer inside the developing pores; and the kinetics of setting the batter into an elastic solid structure. It is shown conclusively that the small bubbles of carbon dioxide resulting from the fermentation stage play a crucial role as nuclei for pore development: without these nuclei, the result is not a porous structure, but rather a solid, elastic, inedible, gelatinized product. These nuclei are also responsible for the tiny bubbles which are set in the final product. The nuclei form the source of the dominant pore structure which is largely driven by the, initially explosive, release of water vapour from the batter together with the desorption of dissolved carbon dioxide. It is argued that the rapid evaporation, transport and condensation of steam within the growing pores provides an important mechanism, as in a heat pipe, for rapid heat transfer, and models for this process are developed and tested. The setting of the continuous batter phase is essential for final product quality: studies using differential scanning calorimetry and on the kinetics of change in the visco-elastic properties of the batter suggest that this process is driven by the kinetics of gelatinization. Unlike many thermally driven food processes the rates of heating are such that gelatinization kinetics cannot be neglected. The implications of these results for modelling and for the development of novel structures are discussed.

The effect of vessel diameter on time dependent gas hold-up variations in highly viscous impeller agitated liquids

Time dependent gas hold-up generated in the 0.3 and 0.6 m diameter vessels using high viscosity castor oil and carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC) solution was compared on the basis of impeller speed (N) and gas velocity (V-G). Two types of hold-up were distinguished-the hold-up due to tiny bubbles (epsilon(ft)) and total hold-up (epsilon(f)), which included large and tiny bubbles. It was noted that vessel diameter (i.e. the scale of operation) significantly influences (i) the trends and the values of epsilon(f) and epsilon(ft), and (ii) the values of tau (a constant reflecting the time dependency of hold-up). The results showed that a scale independent correlation for gas hold-up of the form epsilon(f) or epsilon(ft) = A(N or P-G/V)(a) (V-G)(b), where "a" and "b" are positive constants is not appropriate for viscous liquids. This warrants further investigations into the effect of vessel diameter on gas hold-up in impeller agitated high viscosity liquids (mu or mu(a) > 0.4 Pa s). (C) 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

In vitro study on gas generation and prebiotic effects of some carbohydrates and their mixtures

This study was carried out to examine the effect or inulin (IN), fructooligosaccharide (FOS), polydextrose (POL) and isomaltooligosaccharides (ISO), alone and in combination, on gas production, gas composition and prebiotic effects. Static batch culture fermentation was performed with faecal samples from three healthy volunteers to study the volume and composition of gas generated and changes in bacterial populations. Four carbohydrates alone or mixed with one another (50:50) were examined. Prebiotic index (PI) was calculated and used to compare the prebiotic effect. The high amount of gas produced by IN was reduced by mixing it with FOS. No reduction in gas generation was observed when POL and ISO mixed with other substrates. It was found that the mixture of IN and FOS was effective in reducing the amount of gas produced while augmenting or maintaining their potential to Support the growth of bifidobacteria in Faecal batch culture as the highest PI was achieved with FOS alone and a mixture of FOS and IN. It was also found that high volume of gas was generated in presence of POL and ISO and they had lower prebiotic effect. The results of this study imply that a Mixture of prebiotics could prove effective in reducing the amount of gas generated by the gut microflora. (c) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Recovery of lactoferrin and lactoperoxidase from sweet whey using colloidal gas aphrons (CGAs) generated from an anionic surfactant, AOT

The recovery of lactoferrin and lactoperoxidase from sweet whey was studied using colloidal gas aphrons (CGAs), which are surfactant-stabilized microbubbles (10-100 mum). CGAs are generated by intense stirring (8000 rpm for 10 min) of the anionic surfactant AOT (sodium bis-2-ethylhexyl sulfosuccinate). A volume of CGAs (10-30 mL) is mixed with a given volume of whey (1 - 10 mL), and the mixture is allowed to separate into two phases: the aphron (top) phase and the liquid (bottom) phase. Each of the phases is analyzed by SDS-PAGE and surfactant colorimetric assay. A statistical experimental design has been developed to assess the effect of different process parameters including pH, ionic strength, the concentration of surfactant in the CGAs generating solution, the volume of CGAs and the volume of whey on separation efficiency. As expected pH, ionic strength and the volume of whey (i.e. the amount of total protein in the starting material) are the main factors influencing the partitioning of the Lf(.)Lp fraction into the aphron phase. Moreover, it has been demonstrated that best separation performance was achieved at pH = 4 and ionic strength = 0.1 mol/L i.e., with conditions favoring electrostatic interactions between target proteins and CGAs (recovery was 90% and the concentration of lactoferrin and lactoperoxidase in the aphron phase was 25 times higher than that in the liquid phase), whereas conditions favoring hydrophobic interactions (pH close to pI and high ionic strength) led to lower performance. However, under these conditions, as confirmed by zeta potential measurements, the adsorption of both target proteins and contaminant proteins is favored. Thus, low selectivity is achieved at all of the studied conditions. These results confirm the initial hypothesis that CGAs act as ion exchangers and that the selectivity of the process can be manipulated by changing main operating parameters such as type of surfactant, pH and ionic strength.

Extensional rheology and stability of gas cell walls in bread doughs at elevated temperatures in relation to breadmaking performance

The rheological properties of gas cell walls in bread doughs are considered to be important in relation to their stability and gas retention during proof and baking. Large deformation rheological properties of gas cell walls were measured using biaxial extension for a number of doughs of varying breadmaking quality at constant strain rate and elevated temperatures of 25-60degreesC. Strain hardening and failure strain of cell walls both decreased with temperature, with cell walls in good breadmaking doughs remaining stable and retaining their strain hardening properties at higher temperatures (60degreesC), while the cell walls of poor breadmaking doughs became unstable at lower temperatures (45-50degreesC) and had lower strain hardening. Strain hardening measured at 50degreesC gave good correlations with baking volume, with the best correlations achieved between rheological measurements and baking tests that used similar mixing conditions. As predicted by the considered failure criterion, a strain hardening value of I defines a region below which gas cell walls become unstable, and discriminates well between the baking quality of a range of commercial flour blends of varying quality. This indicates that the stability of gas cell walls during baking is strongly related to strain hardening properties, and that extensional rheological measurements can be used as indicators of baking quality.

Recovery of astaxanthin using colloidal gas aphrons (CGA): a mechanistic study

The aim of this study is to investigate the mechanism responsible for the recovery of astaxanthin using Colloidal Gas Aphrons (CGA), which are surfactant stabilised microbubbles. The latter were produced using different surfactant solutions (Cetyl Trimethyl Ammonium Bromide (CTAB)-cationic, Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate (SDS)-anionic, TWEEN 60-non-ionic and mixtures of TWEEN 60-SPAN 80- non-ionic with varying hydrophobicity) at stirring speed 8000 rpm and stirring time 5 min. Experiments were carried out at varying pH and volumetric ratios of astaxanthin to CGA, and with two different astaxanthin standard suspensions: (i) astaxanthin dispersed in aqueous solutions and (ii) astaxanthin dispersed in ethanolic/aqueous solutions with different compositions of ethanol (20/80 (v/v) and 40/60 (v/v)). When astaxanthin is dispersed in aqueous solutions the separation seems to occur mainly by electrostatic interactions. Therefore the recoveries are higher in the case of the cationic surfactant when astaxanthin particles are strongly negatively charged, as shown by the zeta potential measurements. When ethanol is present, highest recoveries are achieved with CGA produced from the non-ionic surfactant, which indicates that, under these conditions, separation is driven mainly by hydrophobic interactions. In experiments with ethanolic/aqueous suspensions, when the hydrophobicity of the surfactant was increased by increasing volumes of SPAN 80, the CGA produced were less stable; thus higher recoveries of astaxanthin under conditions that favour hydrophobic interactions were not observed. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V All rights reserved.

The use of colloidal gas aphrons as novel downstream processing for the recovery of astaxanthin from cells of Phaffia rhodozyma

BACKGROUND: There is an increasing interest in obtaining natural products with bioactive properties, using fermentation technology. However, the downstream processing consisting of multiple steps can be complicated, leading to increase in the final cost of the product. Therefore there is a need for integrated, cost-effective and scalable separation processes. RESULTS: The present study investigates the use of colloidal gas aphrons (CGA), which are surfactant-stabilized microbubbles, as a novel method for downstream processing. More particularly, their application for the recovery of astaxanthin from the cells of Phaffia rhodozyma is explored. Research carried out with standard solutions of astaxanthin and CGA generated from the cationic surfactant hexadecyl. trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) showed that up to 90% recovery can be achieved under optimum conditions, i.e., pH 11 with NaOH 0.2 mol L-1. In the case of the cells' suspension from the fermentation broth, three different approaches were investigated: (a) the conventional integrated approach where CGA were applied directly; (b) CGA were applied to the clarified suspension of cells; and finally (c) the in situ approach, where CGA are generated within the clarified suspension of cells. Interestingly, in the case of the whole suspension (approach a) highest recoveries (78%) were achieved under the same conditions found to be optimal for the standard solutions. In addition, up to 97% recovery of total carotenoids could be achieved from the clarified suspension after pretreatment with NaOH. This pretreatment led to maximum cell disruption as well as optimum conditioning for subsequent CGA separation. CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate the potential of CGA for the recovery of bioactive components from complex feedstock. (c) 2008 Society of Chemical Industry.

Recovery of norbixin from a raw extraction solution of annatto pigments using colloidal gas aphrons (CGAs)

Annatto dyes are widely used in food and are finding increasing interest also for their application in the pharmaceutical and cosmetics industry. Bixin is the main pigment extracted from annatto seeds and accounts for 80% of the carotenoids in the outer coat of the seeds; norbixin being the water-soluble form of the bixin. Typically annatto dyes are extracted from the seeds by mechanical means or solutions of alkali, edible oil or organic solvents, or a combination of the two depending on the desired final product. In this work CGAs are investigated as an alternative separation method for the recovery of norbixin from a raw extraction solution of annatto pigments in KOH. A volume of CGAs generated from a cationic surfactant (CTAB) solution is mixed with a volume of annatto solution and when the mixture is allowed to settle it separates into the top aphron phase and the bottom liquid phase. Potassium norbixinate presented in the annatto solution will interact with the surfactant in the aphron phase, which results in the effective separation of norbixin. Recovery= 94% was achieved at a CTAB to norbixin molar ratio of 3.3. In addition a mechanism of separation is proposed here based on the separation results with the cationic surfactant and an anionic surfactant (bis-2-ethyl hexyl sulfosuccinate, AOT) and measurements of surfactant to norbixin ratio in the aphron phase; electrostatic interactions between the surfactant and norbixin molecules result in the fort-nation of a coloured complex and effective separation of norbixin. (c) 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The use of gaseous ozone and gas packaging to control populations of Salmonella infantis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa on the skin of chicken portions

Chilled breasts of chicken were inoculated with Salmonella infantis or Pseudomonas aeruginosa and then given one of the following treatments: (i) exposure to gaseous ozone (>2000 ppm for up to 30 min); (ii) storage under 70% CO2:30% N-2; and (iii) exposure to gaseous ozone (>2000 ppm for 15 min) followed by storage under 70% CO2:30% N-2; all storage at 7degreesC. Gaseous ozone reduced the counts of samnonellae by 97(Y,, and pseudomonads by 95%, but indigenous coliforms were unaffected. Under the modified atmosphere, the cell count of S. infantis was reduced by 72% following initial exposure and then stabilised, coliforms grew, but Ps. aeruginosa behaved like S. infantis-initial reduction (58%) followed by stability. Exposure to gaseous ozone followed by gas packaging allowed survival of S. infantis, Ps. aeruginosa and coliforms over 9 days at 7degreesC, but there was no evidence of any sensory deterioration. It is proposed that the latter treatment could, in a modified form perhaps, be used to reduce the contamination of chicken carcasses with salmonellae and improve their shelf-life. (C) 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

A similarity solution for a shock reflection problem in isentropic gas dynamics

A one-dimensional shock-reflection test problem in the case of slab, cylindrical, or spherical symmetry is discussed. The differential equations for a similarity solution are derived and solved numerically in conjunction with the Rankie-Hugoniot shock relations.