Foundations for offshore wind turbines

Offshore wind turbines impose unique combinations of loads on their foundations. They impose large lateral loads in relation to vertical loading which must be resisted, but are also subject to approximately a million cycles of loading through their design life. As the performance of these systems is dominated by their dynamic response, the stiffness of the foundations becomes critical in design. Conventional design codes which are conservative by virtue of predicting a lower stiffness than might be observed in practice may not be conservative for these problems. By utilizing centrifuge modeling the behaviour of monopile foundations in both sands and clays under cyclic loading can be investigated in order to predict the dynamic behaviour of these systems. © 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London.

Unsteady numerical study of wet steam flow in a low pressure steam turbine

In steam power plants condensation already starts in the flow path of the low pressure part of the steam turbine, which leads to a complex three-dimensional two-phase flow. Wetness losses are caused due to thermodynamic and mechanical relaxation processes during condensation and droplet transport. The present investigation focuses on the unsteady effects due to rotor-stator interaction on the droplet formation process. Results of unsteady three dimensional flow simulations of a two-stage steam turbine are presented, whereby this is the first time that non-equilibrium condensation is considered in such simulations. The numerical approach is based on RANS equations, which are extended by a wet steam specific nucleation and droplet growth model. Despite the use of a high performance cluster the unsteady simulation has a considerably high simulation time of approximately 60 days by use of 48 CPUs. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2012.

Modelling and validation of wet steam flow in a low pressure steam turbine

Results of numerical investigations of the wet steam flow in a three stage low pressure steam turbine test rig are presented. The test rig is a scale model of a modern steam turbine design and provides flow measurements over a range of operating conditions which are used for detailed comparisons with the numerical results. For the numerical analysis a modern CFD code with user defined models for specific wet steam modelling is used. The effect of different theoretical models for nucleation and droplet growth are examined. It is shown that heterogeneous condensation is highly dependent on steam quality and, in this model turbine with high quality steam, a homogeneous theory appears to be the best choice. The homogeneous theory gives good agreement between the test rig traverse measurements and the numerical results. The differences in the droplet size distribution of the three stage turbine are shown for different loads and modelling assumptions. The different droplet growth models can influence the droplet size by a factor of two. An estimate of the influence of unsteady effects is made by means of an unsteady two-dimensional simulation. The unsteady modelling leads to a shift of nucleation into the next blade row. For the investigated three stage turbine the influence due to wake chopping on the condensation process is weak but to confirm this conclusion further investigations are needed in complete three dimensions and on turbines with more stages. Copyright © 2011 by ASME.

Non-equilibirum condensation effects on the flow field and the performance of a low pressure steam turbine

The influence of non-equilibrium condensation on the flow field and performance of a three stage low pressure model steam turbine is examined using modern three dimensional CFD techniques. An equilibrium steam model and a non-equilibrium steam model, which accounts for both subcooling and condensation effects, are used, and have been verified by comparison with test data in an earlier publication [1]. The differences in the calculated flow field and turbine performance with these models show that the latent heat released during condensation influences both the thermodynamic and the aerodynamic performance of the turbine, leading to a change in inlet flow angles of about 5°. The calculated three dimensional flowfield is used to investigate the magnitude and distribution of the additional thermo-dynamic wetness loss arising from steam condensation under non-equilibrium flow conditions. Three simple methods are described to calculate this, and all show that this amounts to around 6.5% of the total losses at the design condition. At other load conditions the wetness losses change in magnitude and axial distribution in the turbine. © 2010 by ASME.

Wetness loss prediction for a low pressure steam turbine using computational fluid dynamics

Two-phase computational fluid dynamics modelling is used to investigate the magnitude of different contributions to the wet steam losses in a three-stage model low pressure steam turbine. The thermodynamic losses (due to irreversible heat transfer across a finite temperature difference) and the kinematic relaxation losses (due to the frictional drag of the drops) are evaluated directly from the computational fluid dynamics simulation using a concept based on entropy production rates. The braking losses (due to the impact of large drops on the rotor) are investigated by a separate numerical prediction. The simulations show that in the present case, the dominant effect is the thermodynamic loss that accounts for over 90% of the wetness losses and that both the thermodynamic and the kinematic relaxation losses depend on the droplet diameter. The numerical results are brought into context with the well-known Baumann correlation, and a comparison with available measurement data in the literature is given. The ability of the numerical approach to predict the main wetness losses is confirmed, which permits the use of computational fluid dynamics for further studies on wetness loss correlations. © IMechE 2013 Reprints and permissions: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav.

Experimental study of the effects of temperature variation on droplet size and wetness fraction in a low-pressure model steam turbine

The three-stage low-pressure model steam turbine at the Institute of Thermal Turbomachinery and Machinery Laboratory (ITSM) was used to study the impact of three different steam inlet temperatures on the homogeneous condensation process and the resulting wetness topology. The droplet spectrum as well as the particle number concentration were measured in front of the last stage using an optical-pneumatic probe. At design load, condensation starts inside the stator of the second stage. A change in the steam inlet temperature is able to shift the location of condensation onset within the blade row up- or downstream and even into adjoining blade passages, which leads to significantly different local droplet sizes and wetness fractions due to different local expansion rates. The measured results are compared to steady three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics calculations. The predicted nucleation zones could be largely confirmed by the measurements. Although the trend of measured and calculated droplet size across the span is satisfactory, there are considerable differences between the measured and computed droplet spectrum and wetness fractions. © IMechE 2013 Reprints and permissions: sagepub.co.uk/ journalsPermissions.nav.

Development of a turning mid turbine frame with embedded design-part II: Unsteady measurements

© 2014 by ASME. This paper, the second of two parts, presents a new setup for the two-stage two-spool facility located at the Institute for Thermal Turbomachinery and Machine Dynamics (ITTM) of Graz University of Technology. The rig was designed to reproduce the flow behavior of a transonic turbine followed by a counter-rotating low pressure stage such as those in high bypass aero-engines. The meridional flow path of the machine is characterized by a diffusing S-shaped duct between the two rotors. The role of wide chord vanes placed into the mid turbine frame is to lead the flow towards the low pressure (LP) rotor with appropriate swirl. Experimental and numerical investigations performed on this setup showed that the wide chord struts induce large wakes and extended secondary flows at the LP inlet flow. Moreover, large deterministic fluctuations of pressure, which may cause noise and blade vibrations, were observed downstream of the LP rotor. In order to minimize secondary vortices and to damp the unsteady interactions, the mid turbine frame was redesigned to locate two zero-lift splitters into each vane passage. While in the first part of the paper the design process of the splitters and the time-averaged flow field were presented, in this second part the measurements performed by means of a fast response probe will support the explanation of the time-resolved field. The discussion will focus on the comparison between the baseline case (without splitters) and the embedded design.

Development of a turning mid turbine frame with embedded design-part I: Design and steady measurements

© 2014 by ASME. The paper presents a new setup for the two-stage two-spool facility located at the Institute for Thermal Turbomachinery and Machine Dynamics (ITTM) of Graz University of Technology. The rig was designed in order to simulate the flow behavior of a transonic turbine followed by a counter-rotating low pressure (LP) stage like the spools of a modern high bypass aeroengine. The meridional flow path of the machine is characterized by a diffusing S-shaped duct between the two rotors. The role of turning struts placed into the mid turbine frame is to lead the flow towards the LP rotor with appropriate swirl. Experimental and numerical investigations performed on the setup over the last years, which were used as baseline for this paper, showed that wide chord vanes induce large wakes and extended secondary flows at the LP rotor inlet flow. Moreover, unsteady interactions between the two turbines were observed downstream of the LP rotor. In order to increase the uniformity and to decrease the unsteady content of the flow at the inlet of the LP rotor, the mid turbine frame was redesigned with two zero-lifting splitters embedded into the strut passage. In this first part of the paper the design process of the splitters and its critical points are presented, while the time-averaged field is discussed by means of five-hole probe measurements and oil flow visualizations. The comparison between the baseline case and the embedded design configuration shows that the new design is able to reduce the flow gradients downstream of the turning struts, providing a more suitable inlet condition for the low pressure rotor. The improvement in the flow field uniformity is also observed downstream of the turbine and it is, consequently, reflected in an enhancement of the LP turbine performance. In the second part of this paper the influence of the embedded design on the time-resolved field is investigated.

Effect of wind speed on loss of water from Nostoc flagelliforme colonies

The effects of wind speed on loss of water from N. flagelliforme colonies were investigated indoors in an attempt to assess its ecological significance in field. Wind enhanced the process of waterless; the half-time of desiccation at wind speeds of 2.0 and 3.4 m s(-1) was, respectively, shortened to one-third and one-fifth at 20 degrees C and, to one-sixth and one-eighth at 27 degrees C that of still air. Photosynthetic efficiency was not affected before the wet alga lost about 50% water.