Permanent demand excess as business strategy: an analysis of the Brazilian higher-education market

Many Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) establish tuition below the equilibrium price to generate permanent demand excess. This paper first adapts Becker’s (1991) theory to understand why the HEIs price in this way. The fact that students are both consumers and inputs on the education production process gives rise to a market equilibrium where some firms have excess demand and charge high prices, and others charge low prices and have empty seats.Second, the paper analyzes this equilibrium empirically. We estimated the demand for undergraduate courses in Business Administration in the State of São Paulo. The results show that tuition, quality of incoming students and percentage of lecturers holding doctorates degrees are the determining factors of students’ choice. Since the student quality determines the demand for a HEI, it is calculated what the value is for a HEI to get better students; that is the total revenue that each HEI gives up to guarantee excess demand. Regarding the “investment” in selectivity, 39 HEIs in São Paulo give up a combined R$ 5 million (or US$ 3.14 million) in revenue per year per freshman class, which means 7.6% of the revenue coming from a freshman class.

Hypoglycémie et traitement du diabète de type 2. Le retour à une normoglycémie n'est pas nécessairement la meilleure stratégie thérapeutique [Hypoglycemia and diabetes treatment: the return to normal glucose level is not always the best therapeutic strategy].

Recent clinical trials with type 2 diabetic patients and the quest of normal glyceamic values, have revealed difficulties and limitations. These too normal glyceamic targets corresponding to the physiological standards are associated with very high rate of hypoglycemia and an increase of mortality. A too simplistic view of treatment: "the lowest, the better is in the diabetes" is no longer defensible. The knowledge from complex systems behavior invites us to search targets adapted to a new state of equilibrium due to loss of self-regulation. These targets should not aim the physiological standards but to be adapted to patient's situation. Shared decision-making and consensus are the two pillars of this new strategy supported by the new ADA-EASD guidelines.

Safety of falciparum malaria diagnostic strategy based on rapid diagnostic tests in returning travellers and migrants: a retrospective study.

BACKGROUND: Rapid diagnostic tests for malaria (RDTs) allow accurate diagnosis and prompt treatment. Validation of their usefulness in travellers with fever was needed. The safety of a strategy to diagnose falciparum malaria based on RDT followed by immediate or delayed microscopy reading at first attendance was evaluated in one referral hospital in Switzerland. METHODS: A retrospective study was conducted in the outpatient clinic and emergency ward of University Hospital, covering a period of eight years (1999-2007). The study was conducted in the outpatient clinic and emergency ward of University Hospital. All adults suspected of malaria with a diagnostic test performed were included. RDT and microscopy as immediate tests were performed during working hours, and RDT as immediate test and delayed microscopy reading out of laboratory working hours. The main outcome measure was occurrence of specific complications in RDT negative and RDT positive adults. RESULTS: 2,139 patients were recruited. 1987 had both initial RDT and blood smear (BS) result negative. Among those, 2/1987 (0.1%) developed uncomplicated malaria with both RDT and BS positive on day 1 and day 6 respectively. Among the 152 patients initially malaria positive, 137 had both RDT and BS positive, four only BS positive and five only RDT positive (PCR confirmed) (six had only one test performed). None of the four initially RDT negative/BS positive and none of the five initially BS negative/RDT positive developed severe malaria while 6/137 of both RDT and BS positive did so. The use of RDT allowed a reduction of a median of 2.1 hours to get a first malaria test result. CONCLUSIONS: A malaria diagnostic strategy based on RDTs and a delayed BS is safe in non-immune populations, and shortens the time to first malaria test result.

Coupled reproductive ecologies in a plant-pollinator-seed predator system

Résumé de la thèseBien que le mutualisme puisse être considéré comme une relation harmonieuse entre différentes espèces, son étude révèle plutôt une exploitation réciproque où chaque partenaire tente de maximiser ses bénéfices tout en réduisant ses coûts. Dans ce contexte, l'identification des facteurs qui favorisent ou contrarient, au cours de l'évolution, une issue mutualiste est une étape majeure pour pouvoir reconstruire les étapes clés menant à l'apparition et au maintien des interactions mutualistes. Le but de ce doctorat était l'identification des traits phénotypiques qui permettent à la plante Silene latofolia (Caryophyllacée)et à son pollinisateur - prédateur de graines, la phalène Hadena bicruris (Noctuidé), d'augmenter les bénéfices nets que chacun retire de l'interaction. Ce système d'étude est particulièrement bien approprié à l'étude de ces traits, car on peut assez facilement estimer la qualité et la quantité des descendants (fitness) des deux partenaires. En effet, la femelle papillon pond un oeuf dans la fleur qu'elle pollinise et sa larve se développe dans le fruit, consommant les graines de la plante. Ainsi, sur une même plante, il est possible d'estimer les succès respectifs de la plante et du papillon à obtenir une descendance. De plus, le conflit d'intérêt autour des graines qui sont indispensables, à la fois à la plante et au papillon, peut stimuler l'évolution de traits qui limitent la surexploitation réciproque des partenaires. Dans une première étude, j'ai montré que le papillon mâle était un pollinisateur efficace de S. latifolia et qu'ainsi, il permettait à la plante d'augmenter le nombre de graines produites (i.e.bénéfice) sans pour autant augmenter la quantité de larves sur la plante. Dans ce système, les papillons pondent un seul oeuf par fleur, déposé soit à l'intérieur de la fleur, dans le tube de corolle, soit sur le pétale. Ma seconde étude montre que les plantes répondent différemment à la présence des oeufs suivant leur position. Aussi, quand l'oeuf est placé dans la fleur, la plante a davantage tendance à ne pas développer le fruit de la fleur infesté ou bien à produire des fruits plus petits que lorsque l'oeuf est placé sur le pétale. Enfin, j'ai montré que la femelle du papillon pond plus souvent sur le pétale lorsque elle visite des fleurs dotées d'un long tube de corolle, et que les larves issues de ces oeufs ont moins de chances de réussir à pénétrer dans le fruit que les larves issues des oeufs placés à l'intérieur de la fleur. Aussi, la variation observée du site de ponte pourrait être causé par la morphologie de la fleur qui contraint le papillon à pondre sur le pétale. Vu dans leur ensemble, les résultats obtenus pendant ce doctorat suggèrent que la participation des mâles à la pollination, l'absence de développement des fruits et la profondeur du tube de corolle pourraient réduire les coûts que S. latifolia subit dans son interaction avec H. bicruris. Par ailleurs, je n'ai pas détecté de mécanismes qui permettraient au papillon de réduire les coûts que la plante pourrait lui imposer. La prochaine étape serait de déterminer l'effet des traits identifiés dans ce doctorat sur la fitness globale de la plante et du papillon pour estimer pleinement leur efficacité à réduire les coûts et à favoriser une issue mutualiste. De même, il faudrait évaluer l'effet de ces traits en populations naturelles pour identifier le rôle des facteurs environnementaux sur leur efficacité.AbstractAlthough mutualisms can be regarded as harmonious relationships between the interacting partners, they are best conceptualized as reciprocal exploitations in which each partner attempts to increase its own benefits and decrease its costs. To date, identifying the factors which promote or discourage mutualistic outcomes remains a major goal to reconstruct the ecological conditions leading to mutualisms. The aim of this PhD thesis was to identify phenotypic traits that may increase the net benefits of each partner in the interaction between the plant Silene latifolia (Caryophyllaceae) and its pollinator / seed predator, the moth Hadena bicruris (Noctuidae). This study system is particularly well suited because the fitness of both interacting species can be assessed. The female moth lays its egg in the flower it pollinated, and its offspring grows in the fruit, feeding on the seeds of the plant, which allows for the follow-up of both larva and fruit fates. Furthermore, the inherent conflict of interest over the seeds as plant progeny vs. larval resource may stimulate the evolution of traits that reduce overexploitation in both the moth and plant. In a first study, I show that male moths are efficient pollinators, hence increasing seed production without increasing oviposition. The contribution of male moths to pollination might thus improve the net benefits of the interaction for the host plant. Females of the H. bicruris moth lay a single egg per flower, and place it either inside the corolla tube or on the petal. My second study shows that plants are more likely to abort the infested flower or to produce a smaller fruit when the egg was experimentally placed inside the flower compared to plants that received an egg on the petal. Finally, female moths were found to lay their eggs more frequently on the petal when visiting a flower with a deep corolla tube, and larvae hatching from these eggs less likely to successfully attack the fruit. Variation in egg position on the flower may thus be the result of a constraint imposed by floral morphology. Overall, this PhD work suggests that the pollination by male moths, flower abortion, and deep corolla tube may efficiently reduce the costs experienced by S. latifolia in its interaction with H. bicruris. Interestingly, no apparent mechanism of costs reduction was detected for the moth. Further studies should focus on the effects of these traits (i) in the long term fitness of both the plant and the insect and (ii) their interactions with environmental factors (biotic and abiotic) that may affect their efficiency in natural populations.

An alternative socio-ecological strategy? International Trade Unions' engagement with climate change

In the context of a global ecological crisis, it is an important move when trade unions turn to environmentalism. Yet, the form that this environmentalism takes is often overlooked. This is especially the case with international trade unions. Based on an empirical study of international trade unions' engagement with the climate change issue, this article argues that international trade unions follow three different (and partially conflicting) strategies. I label these strategies as 'deliberative', 'collaborative growth' and 'socialist', and I examine each in turn. I argue that such analysis is important if we want to identify the potential for transforming the social relations of production that are at the root of the current climate crisis, and for identifying an alternative socio-ecological strategy.

Male sexuality-related concerns: what use of the internet?

Purpose: Although young males encounter sexually-related concerns, they are mostly absent from specialized services. Our objective is to assess whether the internet is used by boys to find answers to these types of problems and questions. Methods: In the context of a qualitative study assessing young males' barriers to access sexual and reproductive health facilities, we conducted two focus groups gathering 12 boys aged 17-20. Discussions were triggered through the presentation of four vignettes corresponding to questions posted by 17-20 year old boys and girls on an information website for adolescents (www.ciao.ch), concerning various sexual dysfunction situations. In order to avoid having to talk about their own experience, participants were asked what they would do in those cases. Results: In general, the internet was mentioned quite thoroughly as a means of searching for information through research engines and a place to address professionals for advice.Within the hierarchy of consultation possibilities, the internet was given the first place as a way to deal with these types of problems presenting many advantages: (1) the internet enables to maintain intimacy; (2) it is anonymous (use of a pseudo); (3) it avoids having to confront someone face-to-face with personal problems which can be embarrassing and challenging for one's pride; (4) it is free; and (5) it is accessible at all times. In other words, participants value the internet as a positive tool to avoid many barriers which prevent offline consultations to take place. Most participants consider the internet at least as a first step in trying to solve a problem; for instance, by better defining the seriousness of a problem and judging if it is worth consulting a doctor. However, despite the positive qualities of the internet, they do put forward the importance of having specialists answering questions, trustworthiness, and being followed-up by the same person. Participants suggested that a strategy to break down barriers for boys to consult in face-to-face settings is to have a consultation on the internet as a first step which could then guide the person to an in-person consultation if necessary. Conclusions: The internet as a means of obtaining information or consulting received high marks overall. Although the internet cannot replace an in-person consultation, the screen and the keyboard have the advantage of not involving a face-to-face encounter and raise the possibility of discussing sexual problems anonymously and in private. The internet tools together with other new technologies should continue to develop in a secure manner as a space providing prevention messages and to become an easy access door to sexual and reproductive health services for young men, which can then guide youths to appropriate resource persons. Sources of support: This study was supported by the Maurice Chalumeau Foundation, Switzerland.

Strategy Report for Electronics Waste Management in Iowa, December 30, 2003

Strategy Report for Electronics Waste Management

Massive nest-box supplementation boosts fecundity, survival and even immigration without altering mating and reproductive behaviour in a rapidly recovered bird population.

Habitat restoration measures may result in artificially high breeding density, for instance when nest-boxes saturate the environment, which can negatively impact species' demography. Potential risks include changes in mating and reproductive behaviour such as increased extra-pair paternity, conspecific brood parasitism, and polygyny. Under particular cicumstances, these mechanisms may disrupt reproduction, with populations dragged into an extinction vortex. With the use of nuclear microsatellite markers, we investigated the occurrence of these potentially negative effects in a recovered population of a rare secondary cavity-nesting farmland bird of Central Europe, the hoopoe (Upupa epops). High intensity farming in the study area has resulted in a total eradication of cavity trees, depriving hoopoes from breeding sites. An intensive nest-box campaign rectified this problem, resulting in a spectacular population recovery within a few years only. There was some concern, however, that the new, high artificially-induced breeding density might alter hoopoe mating and reproductive behaviour. As the species underwent a serious demographic bottleneck in the 1970-1990s, we also used the microsatellite markers to reconstitute the demo-genetic history of the population, looking in particular for signs of genetic erosion. We found i) a low occurrence of extra-pair paternity, polygyny and conspecific brood parasitism, ii) a high level of neutral genetic diversity (mean number of alleles and expected heterozygosity per locus: 13.8 and 83%, respectively) and, iii) evidence for genetic connectivity through recent immigration of individuals from well differentiated populations. The recent increase in breeding density did thus not induce so far any noticeable detrimental changes in mating and reproductive behaviour. The demographic bottleneck undergone by the population in the 1970s-1990s was furthermore not accompanied by any significant drop in neutral genetic diversity. Finally, genetic data converged with a concomitant demographic study to evidence that immigration strongly contributed to local population recovery.

Genetics of cadmium hyperaccumulation variance in Thlaspi caerulescens natural populations from Switzerland

SUMMARY Heavy metal presence in the environment is a serious concern since some of them can be toxic to plants, animals and humans once accumulated along the food chain. Cadmium (Cd) is one of the most toxic heavy metal. It is naturally present in soils at various levels and its concentration can be increased by human activities. Several plants however have naturally developed strategies allowing them to grow on heavy metal enriched soils. One of them consists in the accumulation and sequestration of heavy metals in the above-ground biomass. Some plants present in addition an extreme strategy by which they accumulate a limited number of heavy metals in their shoots in amounts 100 times superior to those expected for a non-accumulating plant in the same conditions. Understanding the genetic basis of the hyperaccumulation trait - particularly for Cd - remains an important challenge which may lead to biotechnological applications in the soil phytoremediation. In this thesis, Thlaspi caerulescens J. & C. Presl (Brassicaceae) was used as a model plant to study the Cd hyperaccumulation trait, owing to its physiological and genetic characteristics. Twenty-four wild populations were sampled in different regions of Switzerland. They were characterized for environmental and soil parameters as well as intrinsic characteristics of plants (i.e. metal concentrations in shoots). They were as well genetically characterized by AFLPs, plastid DNA polymorphism and genes markers (CAPS and microsatellites) mainly developed in this thesis. Some of the investigated genes were putatively linked to the Cd hyperaccumulation trait. Since the study of the Cd hyperaccumulation in the field is important as it allows the identification of patterns of selection, the present work offered a methodology to define the Cd hyperaccumulation capacity of populations from different habitats permitting thus their comparison in the field. We showed that Cd, Zn, Fe and Cu accumulations were linked and that populations with higher Cd hyperaccumulation capacity had higher shoot and reproductive fitness. Using our genetic data, statistical methods (Beaumont & Nichols's procedure, partial Mantel tests) were applied to identify genomic signatures of natural selection related to the Cd hyperaccumulation capacity. A significant genetic difference between populations related to their Cd hyperaccumulation capacity was revealed based on somè specific markers (AFLP and candidate genes). Polymorphism at the gene encoding IRTl (Iron-transporter also participating to the transport of Zn) was suggested as explaining part of the variation in Cd hyperaccumulation capacity of populations supporting previous physiological investigations. RÉSUMÉ La présence de métaux lourds dans l'environnement est un phénomène préoccupant. En effet, certains métaux lourds - comme le cadmium (Cd) -sont toxiques pour les plantes, les animaux et enfin, accumulés le long de la chaîne alimentaire, pour les hommes. Le Cd est naturellement présent dans le sol et sa concentration peut être accrue par différentes activités humaines. Certaines plantes ont cependant développé des stratégies leur permettant de pousser sur des sols contaminés en métaux lourds. Parmi elles, certaines accumulent et séquestrent les métaux lourds dans leurs parties aériennes. D`autres présentent une stratégie encore plus extrême. Elles accumulent un nombre limité de métaux lourds en quantités 100 fois supérieures à celles attendues pour des espèces non-accumulatrices sous de mêmes conditions. La compréhension des bases génétiques de l'hyperaccumulation -particulièrement celle du Cd - représente un défi important avec des applications concrètes en biotechnologies, tout particulièrement dans le but appliqué de la phytoremediation des sols contaminés. Dans cette thèse, Thlaspi caerulescens J. & C. Presl (Brassicaceae) a été utilisé comme modèle pour l'étude de l'hyperaccumulation du Cd de par ses caractéristiques physiologiques et génétiques. Vingt-quatre populations naturelles ont été échantillonnées en Suisse et pour chacune d'elles les paramètres environnementaux, pédologique et les caractéristiques intrinsèques aux plantes (concentrations en métaux lourds) ont été déterminés. Les populations ont été caractérisées génétiquement par des AFLP, des marqueurs chloroplastiques et des marqueurs de gènes spécifiques, particulièrement ceux potentiellement liés à l'hyperaccumulation du Cd (CAPS et microsatellites). La plupart ont été développés au cours de cette thèse. L'étude de l'hyperaccumulation du Cd en conditions naturelles est importante car elle permet d'identifier la marque, éventuelle de sélection naturelle. Ce travail offre ainsi une méthodologie pour définir et comparer la capacité des populations à hyperaccumuler le Cd dans différents habitats. Nous avons montré que les accumulations du Cd, Zn, Fe et Cu sont liées et que les populations ayant une grande capacité d'hyperaccumuler le Cd ont également une meilleure fitness végétative et reproductive. Des méthodes statistiques (l'approche de Beaumont & Nichols, tests de Martel partiels) ont été utilisées sur les données génétiques pour identifier la signature génomique de la sélection naturelle liée à la capacité d'hyperaccumuler le Cd. Une différenciation génétique des populations liée à leur capacité d'hyperaccumuler le Cd a été mise en évidence sur certains marqueurs spécifiques. En accord avec les études physiologiques connues, le polymorphisme au gène codant IRT1 (un transporteur de Fe impliqué dans le transport du Zn) pourrait expliquer une partie de la variance de la capacité des populations à hyperaccumuler le Cd.

Vascular dysfunction in children conceived by assisted reproductive technologies: underlying mechanisms and future implications.

Epidemiological studies in humans have demonstrated a relationship between pathological events during fetal development and increased cardiovascular risk later in life and have led to the so called "Fetal programming of cardiovascular disease hypothesis". The recent observation of generalised vascular dysfunction in young apparently healthy children conceived by assisted reproductive technologies (ART) provides a novel and potentially very important example of this hypothesis. This review summarises recent data in ART children demonstrating premature subclinical atherosclerosis in the systemic circulation and pulmonary vascular dysfunction predisposing to exaggerated hypoxia-induced pulmonary hypertension. These problems appear to be related to the ART procedure per se. Studies in ART mice demonstrating premature vascular aging and arterial hypertension further demonstrate the potential of ART to increase cardiovascular risk and have allowed to unravel epigenetic alterations of the eNOS gene as an underpinning mechanism. The roughly 25% shortening of the life span in ART mice challenged with a western style high-fat-diet demonstrates the potential importance of these alterations for the long-term outcome. Given the young age of the ART population, data on cardiovascular endpoints will not be available before 20 to 30 years from now. However, already now cohort studies of the ART population are needed to early detect cardiovascular alterations with the aim to prevent or at least optimally treat cardiovascular complications. Finally, a debate needs to be engaged on the future of ART and the consequences of its exponential growth for public health.

Iowa Comprehensive Strategy for Serious, Violent, and Chronic Juvenile Offenders 1999 - 2000 Report, 2000

The Division of Criminal and Juvenile Justice Planning, as part of its duties to administer the Comprehensive Strategy in Iowa, compiled the information contained in this report.

Energy requirements during reproduction and reproductive effort in shrews (Soricidae)

The energy requirements of reproducing and non-reproducing females of three species of Crocidura (C. russula, C. viaria, C. olivieri), and two species of Sorex (S. coronatus, S. minutus) were measured. Members of these two genera show different rates of metabolism and reproductive strategies (extreme altriciality and larger litter size in Sorex). During pregnancy, the daily energy intake (on either an absolute or a mass-specific basis) remained close to the non-reproductive value in all species. The absolute energy intake increased strongly after parturition and was influenced by the litter size. Peak energy intake of lactating females was extremely high, typically between 100% and 200% above the non-reproductive requirements in the Crocidura and about 300% above the non-reproductive intake in the Sorex. The mass-specific daily energy intake was reduced during lactation in the three smaller species but not in C. viaria and C. olivieri. This decrease probably involves the different thermoregulatory abilities and/or basal rate of metabolism of the pups. Average reproductive effort was about 50%, in the Crocidura species and above 150% in the Sorex species. The higher effort in the latter is partly due to a larger litter size. But in addition, extreme altriciality in the Sorex leads to an earlier increase in the energy requirements and thus is an energetically more expensive reproductive mode. The present results support the hypothesis that a higher basal rate of metabolism is associated with a higher reproductive effort in shrews.