Climatic impacts of land-use change due to crop yield increases and a universal carbon tax from a scenario model*

Future land cover will have a significant impact on climate and is strongly influenced by the extent of agricultural land use. Differing assumptions of crop yield increase and carbon pricing mitigation strategies affect projected expansion of agricultural land in future scenarios. In the representative concentration pathway 4.5 (RCP4.5) from phase 5 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5), the carbon effects of these land cover changes are included, although the biogeophysical effects are not. The afforestation in RCP4.5 has important biogeophysical impacts on climate, in addition to the land carbon changes, which are directly related to the assumption of crop yield increase and the universal carbon tax. To investigate the biogeophysical climatic impact of combinations of agricultural crop yield increases and carbon pricing mitigation, five scenarios of land-use change based on RCP4.5 are used as inputs to an earth system model [Hadley Centre Global Environment Model, version 2-Earth System (HadGEM2-ES)]. In the scenario with the greatest increase in agricultural land (as a result of no increase in crop yield and no climate mitigation) there is a significant -0.49 K worldwide cooling by 2100 compared to a control scenario with no land-use change. Regional cooling is up to -2.2 K annually in northeastern Asia. Including carbon feedbacks from the land-use change gives a small global cooling of -0.067 K. This work shows that there are significant impacts from biogeophysical land-use changes caused by assumptions of crop yield and carbon mitigation, which mean that land carbon is not the whole story. It also elucidates the potential conflict between cooling from biogeophysical climate effects of land-use change and wider environmental aims.

Corporate strategic responses to foreign entry: insights from prospect theory

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to address how firms adapt their product and geographic diversification as a response to foreign rivals penetrating their domestic market by adopting a behavioral perspective to understand firm-level strategic responses to foreign entry. Design/methodology/approach – The study proposes that strategic responses to foreign entry selected by domestic incumbents have both a framing component and a related, strategic choice component, with the latter including changes in product and geographic market diversification (though other more business strategy-related responses are also possible, e.g. in product pricing and marketing). This study tests a set of hypotheses building on panel data of large US firms. Findings – The study finds, in accordance with our predictions, that domestic incumbents reduce their product and geographic diversification when facing an increase in import penetration. However, when increased market penetration by foreign firms takes the form of FDI rather than imports, the corporate response appears to be an increase in product and geographic diversification, again in line with our predictions. Originality/value – The study develops a new conceptual framework that is grounded in prospect theory, but builds on recent insights from mainstream international strategic management studies (Bowen and Wiersema, 2005; Wiersema and Bowen, 2008).

An empirical model comparison for valuing crack spread options

In this paper, we investigate the pricing of crack spread options. Particular emphasis is placed on the question of whether univariate modeling of the crack spread or explicit modeling of the two underlyings is preferable. Therefore, we contrast a bivariate GARCH volatility model for cointegrated underlyings with the alternative of modeling the crack spread directly. Conducting an empirical analysis of crude oil/heating oil and crude oil/gasoline crack spread options traded on the New York Mercantile Exchange, the more simplistic univariate approach is found to be superior with respect to option pricing performance.

Commodity risks and the cross-section of equity returns

The article examines whether commodity risk is priced in the cross-section of global equity returns. We employ a long-only equally-weighted portfolio of commodity futures and a term structure portfolio that captures phases of backwardation and contango as mimicking portfolios for commodity risk. We find that equity-sorted portfolios with greater sensitivities to the excess returns of the backwardation and contango portfolio command higher average excess returns, suggesting that when measured appropriately, commodity risk is pervasive in stocks. Our conclusions are robust to the addition to the pricing model of financial, macroeconomic and business cycle-based risk factors.

Flight to quality? An investigation of changing price spreads in commercial real estate markets

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate the effect of the crisis on the pricing of asset quality attributes. This paper uses sales transaction data to examine whether flight from risk phenomena took place in the US office market during the financial crisis of 2007-2009. Design/methodology/approach – Hedonic regression procedures are used to test the hypothesis that the spread between the pricing of low-quality and high-quality characteristics increased during the crisis period compared to the pre-crisis period. Findings – The results of the hedonic regression models suggest that the price spread between Class A and other properties grew significantly during the downturn. Research limitations/implications – Our results are consistent with the hypothesis of an increased price spread following a market downturn between Class A and non-Class A offices. The evidence suggests that the relationships between the returns on Class A and non-Class A assets changed during the period of market stress or crisis. Practical implications – These findings have implications for real estate portfolio construction. If regime switches can be predicted and/or responded to rapidly, portfolios may be rebalanced. In crisis periods, portfolios might be reweighted towards Class A properties and in positive market periods, the reweighting would be towards non-Class A assets. Social implications – The global financial crisis has demonstrated that real estate markets play a crucial role in modern economies and that negative developments in these markets have the potential to spillover and create contagion for the larger economy, thereby affecting jobs, incomes and ultimately people’s livelihoods. Originality/value – This is one of the first studies that address the flight to quality phenomenon in commercial real estate markets during periods of financial crisis and market turmoil.

The only way is up: retail format saturation and the demise of the American five and dime store, 1914-1941

We examine a classic ‘wheel of retailing’ episode – the abandonment of the five and dime pricing formula by American variety chains. These switched from a conventional product lifecycle, focusing on cost reduction through standardisation, to a reverse path up the ‘service cost - unit value’ continuum. We show that, rather than reflecting deteriorating managerial acumen, this was a response to the continued imperative for growth following retail format saturation. Firm-specific (rather than format-specific) competitive advantages were too weak for any chain to be confident it could win a within-format price war, making inter-format competition through raising price points more attractive.

Systematic risk estimation in symmetric models

The aim of this article is to discuss the estimation of the systematic risk in capital asset pricing models with heavy-tailed error distributions to explain the asset returns. Diagnostic methods for assessing departures from the model assumptions as well as the influence of observations on the parameter estimates are also presented. It may be shown that outlying observations are down weighted in the maximum likelihood equations of linear models with heavy-tailed error distributions, such as Student-t, power exponential, logistic II, so on. This robustness aspect may also be extended to influential observations. An application in which the systematic risk estimate of Microsoft is compared under normal and heavy-tailed errors is presented for illustration.

Defining the links between retail price strategies and price tactics

Retailers tend to become trapped in a price-promotion war where price issues are dealt with on a short-term basis, indicating almost solely tactical choices. Since price is the only part of the marketing mix providing direct revenues to the organisation, it should also be of strategic importance for the retailer. Not only in practice are price tactics often separated from pricing strategies, it is also the case in research where these are often studied in isolation from each other probably due to their individual complexity. This paper contributes to both the research area and practice by discussing these two complex areas together, and the essence of both strategy and tactics are defined. By considering the planning horizon for the retailer this paper further contributes by defining the links between price strategy and price tactic. The conclusion shows the importance of clearly establishing which analytical level is being analysed.

Optimized Water Demand Management Through Intelligent Sensing And Analytics: The WISDOM Approach

New business and technology platforms are required to sustainably manage urban water resources [1,2]. However, any proposed solutions must be cognisant of security, privacy and other factors that may inhibit adoption and hence impact. The FP7 WISDOM project (funded by the European Commission - GA 619795) aims to achieve a step change in water and energy savings via the integration of innovative Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) frameworks to optimize water distribution networks and to enable change in consumer behavior through innovative demand management and adaptive pricing schemes [1,2,3]. The WISDOM concept centres on the integration of water distribution, sensor monitoring and communication systems coupled with semantic modelling (using ontologies, potentially connected to BIM, to serve as intelligent linkages throughout the entire framework) and control capabilities to provide for near real-time management of urban water resources. Fundamental to this framework are the needs and operational requirements of users and stakeholders at domestic, corporate and city levels and this requires the interoperability of a number of demand and operational models, fed with data from diverse sources such as sensor networks and crowsourced information. This has implications regarding the provenance and trustworthiness of such data and how it can be used in not only the understanding of system and user behaviours, but more importantly in the real-time control of such systems. Adaptive and intelligent analytics will be used to produce decision support systems that will drive the ability to increase the variability of both supply and consumption [3]. This in turn paves the way for adaptive pricing incentives and a greater understanding of the water-energy nexus. This integration is complex and uncertain yet being typical of a cyber-physical system, and its relevance transcends the water resource management domain. The WISDOM framework will be modeled and simulated with initial testing at an experimental facility in France (AQUASIM – a full-scale test-bed facility to study sustainable water management), then deployed and evaluated in in two pilots in Cardiff (UK) and La Spezia (Italy). These demonstrators will evaluate the integrated concept providing insight for wider adoption.

Bullied by Budgets, Pushed by Patrons, Driven by Demand: Libraries and Tantalizing Technologies

Libraries are caught in the middle—between static or shrinking budgets on one hand and ever-expanding user needs on the other. How did we get here, and where do we go from here? This paper will offer two perspectives: Part I will present survey results about changing Library purchasing habits in light of changing formats, access, business models and user demands. Data from a previous survey on this topic will be compared and updated. Pricing trends and possible futures will be discussed. Part II will briefly trace the history of libraries’ roles in scholarly communication and connecting learners with knowledge. From there, we show an example of phasing in a patron-driven / demand-driven and short-term loan e-book program, complete with incorporating these tools in library instruction, research, and portable device loadability for field work.

Assimetria informacional e precificação das ações das empresas negociadas na bolsa de valores de São Paulo : evidências a partir da faculdade de divulgar demonstrações contábeis em moeda constante a partir de 1996

Essa dissertação investigou, através de um estudo de eventos no mercado brasileiro de ações, se a divulgação de demonstrações contábeis em moeda constante, de uma empresa de capital aberto, produz efeitos no comportamento do preço de suas ações. A hipótese testada conduziu a investigação de que a política de divulgação das demonstrações contábeis em moeda constante, adotada pelas empresas de capital aberto, a partir de 1996, pode influenciar, significativamente, o processo de precificação de suas ações. Os resultados empíricos do trabalho evidenciaram que a forma de divulgação das demonstrações contábeis em moeda constante (completa, incompleta e omitidas) das empresas de capital aberto, produz efeitos significativos sobre o comportamento dos preços das suas ações, quando comparados os retornos das ações do grupo de empresas que divulgou de forma completa com o grupo de empresas com divulgação parcial ou que não divulgaram estas demonstrações, sendo que estes dois últimos grupos de empresas não apresentaram diferença significativa entre os retornos de suas ações.

Análise de investimentos para abertura de pontos de venda no setor supermercadista : o caso de uma pequena empresa familiar

O grande objetivo em finanças para os gestores das empresas é o de proporcionar aumento de valor aos acionistas. Para que isso possa ser efetivamente implementado, é necessário que o investimento proporcione para o acionista um retorno superior ao custo de oportunidade do seu capital, contemplando o risco do investimento, mensurado através de um modelo de avaliação. Este trabalho apresenta os principais conceitos de avaliação de ativos, destacando a criação de valor como a medida mais importante do desempenho da empresa. O fluxo de caixa descontado é abordado como o método que melhor resume o conceito de criação de valor, destacando-se o fluxo de caixa do acionista e o fluxo de caixa da empresa. Também são apresentados a forma de apuração dos fluxos de caixa, a estimativa das taxas de crescimento, algumas situações especiais onde o fluxo de caixa descontado necessita de adaptações e outros métodos alternativos de análise de investimentos, sendo que nenhum deles é capaz de superar a técnica do valor presente líquido – VPL, pois o método do VPL utiliza todos os fluxos de caixa de um projeto, descontando-os corretamente de acordo com o custo de oportunidade do capital O estudo mostra, ainda, uma rápida explanação das principais técnicas de mensuração do risco e do retorno exigido pelos investidores ou proprietários segundo a teoria de valor, como o CAPM (Capital Asset Price Model), o APM (Arbitrage Pricing Model) e o Multifatorial, destacando-se entre eles a dificuldade de mensuração do custo do capital próprio em empresas de capital fechado no Brasil, para a devida apuração da taxa de desconto. A metodologia proposta é aplicada na avaliação do investimento, em um novo ponto de venda, realizado por uma pequena empresa familiar do setor supermercadista. Dessa forma, ao final do estudo, propõe-se a utilização de uma ferramenta gerencial, baseada no fluxo de caixa descontado, para avaliação de futuros investimentos da empresa, buscando-se assim a maximização de valor para o acionista ou proprietário.

APT versus modelo de fator de retorno esperado : a aplicação de duas ferramentas de previsão de retornos das ações na BOVESPA

Apesar da grande evolução, a questão da precificação de ativos encontra-se ainda cercada de incertezas e indefinições quanto à forma como esta deve ser feita. A incerteza por parte dos investidores em relação aos resultados a serem obtidos em suas aplicações no mercado financeiro gera forte demanda por modelos mais precisos quanto à capacidade de quantificação do retorno esperado. Este trabalho procura, em uma análise preliminar, estudar, utilizando o tratamento estatístico de regressão múltipla, os fatores explicativos dos retornos diferenciais das ações na Bolsa de Valores de São Paulo (Bovespa) no período de janeiro de 1995 a dezembro de 1999. Em seguida, visa-se analisar, através de um teste comparativo de desempenho envolvendo simulação de investimentos em portfolios de ações, a capacidade do Modelo de Fator de Retorno Esperado de Haugen e Baker (1996) e da APT (Arbitrage Pricing Theory) de Ross (1976) em prognosticar os retornos das 70 ações incluídas na amostra. Por fim, levanta-se o perfil de risco e liquidez dos portfolios selecionados pelos modelos a fim de verificar a relação risco-retorno. Os resultados apontaram sete fatores capazes de explicar o retorno diferencial mensal das ações. Contrapondo-se aos pressupostos teóricos, nenhum fator de risco inseriu-se no grupo de fatores selecionados. Já os fatores que apresentaram significância estatística em suas médias, dois inserem-se no grupo liquidez, três referem-se aos parâmetros de valor das ações e dois estão relacionados ao histórico de preços das ações. Comparando os resultados obtidos pelos modelos inseridos neste estudo, conclui-se que o Modelo de Fator de Retorno Esperado é mais eficiente na tarefa de predizer os retornos futuros das ações componentes da amostra. Este, além de ter alcançado uma média de retornos mensais superior, foi capaz de sustentar retorno acumulado superior ao da APT durante todo o período de teste (jan/2000 a dez/2002). Adicionalmente, o uso deste modelo permitiu selecionar portfolios com um perfil de menor risco.

Fundamentação técnica e atuarial dos seguros de vida : um estudo comparativo entre o seguro de vida individual e o seguro de vida em grupo no Brasil

A indústria de seguros é uma atividade econômica relativamente jovem, possuindo raízes na revolução industrial. O desenvolvimento dessa indústria ocorreu de forma bastante intensa durante o século passado, quando a atividade passou a ser inserida na área de gestão de riscos. As Companhias de Seguros que trabalham nesse ambiente de negócio fundamentam todo o processo de precificação dos seus produtos em rígidas bases técnicas e atuariais. O presente trabalho dedica-se ao estudo dessas questões, abordando especificamente os seguros de vida, com ênfase à cobertura de morte. A pesquisa tem por objetivo comparar duas modalidades distintas de seguros que são ofertadas ao mercado: o seguro de vida individual e o seguro de vida em grupo. Embora ofereçam aos consumidores coberturas bastante similares, ambas as modalidades devem obedecer a requisitos e princípios técnicos diferenciados por parte das instituições que fazem a sua gestão.