Performance evaluation of onsite wastewater treatment : field sampling and preliminary evaluation of results

Background The onsite treatment of sewage and effluent disposal within the premises is widely prevalent in rural and urban fringe areas due to the general unavailability of reticulated wastewater collection systems. Despite the seemingly low technology of the systems, failure is common and in many cases leading to adverse public health and environmental consequences. Therefore it is important that careful consideration is given to the design and location of onsite sewage treatment systems. It requires an understanding of the factors that influence treatment performance. The use of subsurface effluent absorption systems is the most common form of effluent disposal for onsite sewage treatment and particularly for septic tanks. Additionally in the case of septic tanks, a subsurface disposal system is generally an integral component of the sewage treatment process. Therefore location specific factors will play a key role in this context. The project The primary aims of the research project are: • to relate treatment performance of onsite sewage treatment systems to soil conditions at site; • to identify important areas where there is currently a lack of relevant research knowledge and is in need of further investigation. These tasks were undertaken with the objective of facilitating the development of performance based planning and management strategies for onsite sewage treatment. The primary focus of the research project has been on septic tanks. Therefore by implication the investigation has been confined to subsurface soil absorption systems. The design and treatment processes taking place within the septic tank chamber itself did not form a part of the investigation. In the evaluation to be undertaken, the treatment performance of soil absorption systems will be related to the physico-chemical characteristics of the soil. Five broad categories of soil types have been considered for this purpose. The number of systems investigated was based on the proportionate area of urban development within the Brisbane region located on each soil types. In the initial phase of the investigation, though the majority of the systems evaluated were septic tanks, a small number of aerobic wastewater treatment systems (AWTS) were also included. This was primarily to compare the effluent quality of systems employing different generic treatment processes. It is important to note that the number of different types of systems investigated was relatively small. As such this does not permit a statistical analysis to be undertaken of the results obtained. This is an important issue considering the large number of parameters that can influence treatment performance and their wide variability. The report This report is the second in a series of three reports focussing on the performance evaluation of onsite treatment of sewage. The research project was initiated at the request of the Brisbane City Council. The work undertaken included site investigation and testing of sewage effluent and soil samples taken at distances of 1 and 3 m from the effluent disposal area. The project component discussed in the current report formed the basis for the more detailed investigation undertaken subsequently. The outcomes from the initial studies have been discussed, which enabled the identification of factors to be investigated further. Primarily, this report contains the results of the field monitoring program, the initial analysis undertaken and preliminary conclusions. Field study and outcomes Initially commencing with a list of 252 locations in 17 different suburbs, a total of 22 sites in 21 different locations were monitored. These sites were selected based on predetermined criteria. To obtain house owner agreement to participate in the monitoring study was not an easy task. Six of these sites had to be abandoned subsequently due to various reasons. The remaining sites included eight septic systems with subsurface effluent disposal and treating blackwater or combined black and greywater, two sites treating greywater only and six sites with AWTS. In addition to collecting effluent and soil samples from each site, a detailed field investigation including a series of house owner interviews were also undertaken. Significant observations were made during the field investigations. In addition to site specific observations, the general observations include the following: • Most house owners are unaware of the need for regular maintenance. Sludge removal has not been undertaken in any of the septic tanks monitored. Even in the case of aerated wastewater treatment systems, the regular inspections by the supplier is confined only to the treatment system and does not include the effluent disposal system. This is not a satisfactory situation as the investigations revealed. • In the case of separate greywater systems, only one site had a suitably functioning disposal arrangement. The general practice is to employ a garden hose to siphon the greywater for use in surface irrigation of the garden. • In most sites, the soil profile showed significant lateral percolation of effluent. As such, the flow of effluent to surface water bodies is a distinct possibility. • The need to investigate the subsurface condition to a depth greater than what is required for the standard percolation test was clearly evident. On occasion, seemingly permeable soil was found to have an underlying impermeable soil layer or vice versa. The important outcomes from the testing program include the following: • Though effluent treatment is influenced by the physico-chemical characteristics of the soil, it was not possible to distinguish between the treatment performance of different soil types. This leads to the hypothesis that effluent renovation is significantly influenced by the combination of various physico-chemical parameters rather than single parameters. This would make the processes involved strongly site specific. • Generally the improvement in effluent quality appears to take place only within the initial 1 m of travel and without any appreciable improvement thereafter. This relates only to the degree of improvement obtained and does not imply that this quality is satisfactory. This calls into question the value of adopting setback distances from sensitive water bodies. • Use of AWTS for sewage treatment may provide effluent of higher quality suitable for surface disposal. However on the whole, after a 1-3 m of travel through the subsurface, it was not possible to distinguish any significant differences in quality between those originating from septic tanks and AWTS. • In comparison with effluent quality from a conventional wastewater treatment plant, most systems were found to perform satisfactorily with regards to Total Nitrogen. The success rate was much lower in the case of faecal coliforms. However it is important to note that five of the systems exhibited problems with regards to effluent disposal, resulting in surface flow. This could lead to possible contamination of surface water courses. • The ratio of TDS to EC is about 0.42 whilst the optimum recommended value for use of treated effluent for irrigation should be about 0.64. This would mean a higher salt content in the effluent than what is advisable for use in irrigation. A consequence of this would be the accumulation of salts to a concentration harmful to crops or the landscape unless adequate leaching is present. These relatively high EC values are present even in the case of AWTS where surface irrigation of effluent is being undertaken. However it is important to note that this is not an artefact of the treatment process but rather an indication of the quality of the wastewater generated in the household. This clearly indicates the need for further research to evaluate the suitability of various soil types for the surface irrigation of effluent where the TDS/EC ratio is less than 0.64. • Effluent percolating through the subsurface absorption field may travel in the form of dilute pulses. As such the effluent will move through the soil profile forming fronts of elevated parameter levels. • The downward flow of effluent and leaching of the soil profile is evident in the case of podsolic, lithosol and kransozem soils. Lateral flow of effluent is evident in the case of prairie soils. Gleyed podsolic soils indicate poor drainage and ponding of effluent. In the current phase of the research project, a number of chemical indicators such as EC, pH and chloride concentration were employed as indicators to investigate the extent of effluent flow and to understand how soil renovates effluent. The soil profile, especially texture, structure and moisture regime was examined more in an engineering sense to determine the effect of movement of water into and through the soil. However it is not only the physical characteristics, but the chemical characteristics of the soil also play a key role in the effluent renovation process. Therefore in order to understand the complex processes taking place in a subsurface effluent disposal area, it is important that the identified influential parameters are evaluated using soil chemical concepts. Consequently the primary focus of the next phase of the research project will be to identify linkages between various important parameters. The research thus envisaged will help to develop robust criteria for evaluating the performance of subsurface disposal systems.

Cross-border insolvency and legal transnationalisation

The last twenty years have seen an explosion of approaches for dealing with an inevitable consequence of globalised markets, that of cross-border insolvencies. This article places phenomena such as the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) Model Law on Cross-border Insolvency and Cross-border Insolvency Agreements (also known as Protocols) within the context of developing laws on international commercial transactions. First it briefly describes the evolution of the international commercial law (sometimes known as the law merchant) to provide a context to understanding the international commercial responses to the problems created by cross-border insolvencies. Next, it outlines the range of approaches being adopted by States and multilateral bodies in recent decades to resolve cross-border insolvency issues. Finally it draws some preliminary conclusions on the potential implication of this transnationalisation process and broader international commercial law perspective, in particular on the capacity of Cross-Border Insolvency Agreements to address cross-border insolvency issues.

Diabetes foot disease : the Cinderella of Australian diabetes management?

Diabetes is one of the greatest public health challenges to face Australia. It is already Australia’s leading cause of kidney failure, blindness (in those under 60 years) and lower limb amputation, and causes significant cardiovascular disease. Australia’s diabetes amputation rate is one of the worst in the developed world, and appears to have significantly increased in the last decade, whereas some other diabetes complication rates appear to have decreased. This paper aims to compare the national burden of disease for the four major diabetes-related complications and the availability of government funding to combat these complications, in order to determine where diabetes foot disease ranks in Australia. Our review of relevant national literature indicates foot disease ranks second overall in burden of disease and last in evidenced-based government funding to combat these diabetes complications. This suggests public funding to address foot disease in Australia is disproportionately low when compared to funding dedicated to other diabetes complications. There is ample evidence that appropriate government funding of evidence-based care improves all diabetes complication outcomes and reduces overall costs. Numerous diverse Australian peak bodies have now recommended similar diabetes foot evidence-based strategies that have reduced diabetes amputation rates and associated costs in other developed nations. It would seem intuitive that “it’s time” to fund these evidence-based strategies for diabetes foot disease in Australia as well.

Misericordiae Antemortem - The 1955 Mount Superbus Crash

On the 9th April 1955, RAAF Lincoln Bomber A73-64, on a mercy flight to transfer a critically ill infant from Townsville to Brisbane, crashed at Mount Superbus killing the four crew and two civilians on board. The immediate search and rescue was organised by a group of Brisbane bushwalkers who were camping in the area. Police and RAAF personnel subsequently joined the civilians at the crash site to recover the victims. During their initial search of the crash they located what were believed to be the remains of five adults. The arrival of the RAAF Senior Medical Officer (SMO) the following day revealed that only four adult bodies had been found and the bodies of both civilians, an adult and infant, were missing. Later that day the remains of six victims were recovered from the crash site and conveyed to the Warwick Police Station for identification. The RAAF SMO was responsible for the identifications of the aircrew while the Government Medical Officer, police and coroner were responsible for the identifications of the civilians. Eight days later, further remains of the infant were found by a civilian looking through the wreckage. This paper uses archival records not previously researched from a Disaster Victim Identification (DVI) perspective to stimulate interest among forensic practitioners, criminologists and other interested parties in the history of DVI and how practices in Australia have evolved.

Policing visible sexual/gender diversity as a program of governance

Using interview data on LGBT young people’s policing experiences, I argue policing and security works as a program of government (Dean 1999; Foucault 1991; Rose 1999) that constrains the visibilities of diverse sexuality and gender in public spaces. While young people narrated police actions as discriminatory, the interactions were complex and multi‐faceted with police and security working to subtly constrain the public visibilities of ‘queerness’. Same sex affection, for instance, was visibly yet unverifiably (Mason 2002) regulated by police as a method of governing the boundaries of proper gender and sexuality in public. The paper concludes by noting how the visibility of police interactions with LGBT young people demonstrates to the public that public spaces are, and should remain, heterosexual spaces.

The inherent international tax regime and its constraints on Australia's sovereignty

Neither an international tax, nor an international taxing body exists. Rather, there are domestic taxing rules adopted by jurisdictions which, coupled with double tax treaties, apply to cross-border transactions and international taxation issues. International bodies such as the OECD and UN, which provide guidance on tax issues, often steer and supplement these domestic adoptions but have no binding international taxing powers. These pragmatic realities, together with the specific use of the word ‘regime’ within the tax community, lead many to argue that an international tax regime does not exist. However, an international tax regime should be defined no differently to any other area of international law and when we step outside the confines of tax law to consider the definition of a ‘regime’ within international relations it is possible to demonstrate that such a regime is very real. The first part of this article, by defining an international tax regime in a broader and more traditional context, also outlining both the tax policy and principles which frame that regime, reveals its existence. Once it is accepted that an international tax regime exists, it is possible to consider its adoption by jurisdictions and subsequent constraints it places on them. Using the proposed changes to transfer pricing laws as the impetus for assessing Australia’s adoption of the international tax regime, the constraints on sovereignty are assessed through a taxonomy of the level adoption. This reveals the subsequent constraints which flow from the broad acceptance of an international tax regime through to the specific adoption of technical detail. By undertaking this analysis, the second part of this article demonstrates that Australia has inherently adopted an international tax regime, with a move towards explicit adoption and a clear embedding of its principles within the domestic tax legislation.

Legal, cultural and practical developments in responding to female genital mutilation : can an absolute human right emerge?

Female genital mutilation (FGM) is a cultural practice involving the deliberate, non-therapeutic physical modification of young girls’ genitalia. FGM can take several forms, ranging from smaller incisions, to removal of the clitoris and labia, and narrowing or even closing of the vagina. FGM predates and has no basis in the Koran, or any other religious text. Rather, it is a cultural tradition, particularly common in Islamic societies in regions of Africa, motivated by a patriarchal society’s desire to control female bodies and lives. The primary reason for this desire for control is to ensure virginity at marriage, thereby preserving family honour, within a patriarchal social structure where females’ value as persons is intrinsically connected to, and limited to, their worth as virgin brides. Recent efforts at legal prohibition and practical eradication in a growing number of African nations mark a significant turning point in how societies treat females. This shift in cultural power has been catalysed by a concern for female health, but it has also been motivated by an impulse to promote the human rights of girls and women. Although FGM remains widely practiced and there is much progress yet to be made before its eradication, the rights-based approach which has grown in strength embodies a marked shift in cultural power which reflects progress in women’s and children’s rights in the Western world, but which is now being applied in a different cultural context. This chapter reviews the nature of FGM, its prevalence, and health consequences. It discusses recent legal, cultural and practical developments, especially in African nations. Finally, this chapter raises the possibility that an absolute human right against FGM may emerge.

Micas in experimentally shocked gneiss

Biotites and muscovites from a gneiss have been experimentally shocked between 18 and 70 GPa using powder-propellant guns at NASA Johnson Space Center and at the California Institute of Technology. This study shows that shock in biotite and muscovite can produce homogeneous and devolatilized glasses within microseconds. Shock-deformed micas display fracturing, kinking, and complex extinction patterns over the entire pressure range investigated. However, these deformation features are not a sensitive pressure indicator. Localized melting of micas begins at 33 GPa and goes to completion at 70 GPa. Melted biotite and muscovite are optically opaque, but show extensive microvesiculation and flow when observed with the SEM. Electron diffraction confirms that biotite and muscovite have transformed to a glass. The distribution of vesicles in shock-vitrified mica shows escape of volatiles within the short duration of the shock experiment. Experimentally shocked biotite and muscovite undergo congruent melting. Compositions of the glasses are similar to the unshocked micas except for volatiles (H2O loss and K loss). These unusual glasses derived from mica may be quenched by rapid cooling conditions during the shock experiment. Based on these results, the extremely low H2O content of tektites may be reconciled with a terrestrial origin by impact. Release of volatiles in shock-melted micas affects the melting behavior of coexisting dry silicates during the short duration of the shock experiment. Transportation and escape of volatiles released from shock-melted micas may provide plausible mechanisms for the origin of protoatmospheres on terrestrial planets, hydrothermal activity on phyllosilicate-rich meteorite parent bodies, and fluid entrapment in meteorites.

Infrared spectra of Mg-SiO smokes : comparison with analytical electron microscopy studies

An important component of current models for interstellar and circumstellar evolution is the infrared (IR)spectral data collected from stellar outflows around oxygen-rich stars and from the general interstellar medium [1]. IR spectra from these celestial bodies are usually interpreted as showing the general properties of sub-micron sized silicate grains [2]. Two major features at 10 and 20 microns are reasonably attributed to amorphous olivine or pyroxene (e.g. Mg2Si04 or MgSi03) on the basis of comparisons with natural standards and vapor condensed silicates [3-6]. In an attempt to define crystallisation rates for spectrally amorphous condensates, Nuth and Donn [5] annealed experimentally produced amorphous magnesium silicate smokes at 1000K. On analysing these smokes at various annealing times, Nuth and Donn [5] showed that changes in crystallinity measured by bulk X-ray diffraction occured at longer annealing times (days) than changes measured by IR spectra (a few hours). To better define the onset of crystallinity in these magnesium silicates, we have examined each annealed product using a JEOL 1OOCX analytical electron microscope (AEM). In addition, the development of chemical diversity with annealing has been monitored using energy dispersive spectroscopy of individual grains from areas <20nm in diameter. Furthermore, the crystallisation kinetics of these smokes under ambient, room temperature conditions have been examined using bulk and fourier transform infrared (FTIR)spectra.

Electron petrography of fine-grained matrix in the Karoonda C4 carbonaceous chondrite

The study of matrices of rare Type 4 carbonaceous chondrites can reveal important information on parent body rnetamorp~ic processes and provide a comparison with processes on parent bodies of ordinary chc-idrites. Reflectance spectra (Tholen, 1984) from the two largest asteroids in the asteroid belt, Ceres and Pallas, suggest that they may be metamorphosed carbonaceous chondrites. These two asteroids constitute - onethird of the mass in the asteroid belt implying that type 4-6 carbonaceous chondrites are poorly represented in the meteorite collection and may be of considerable importance. The matrix of the C4 chondrite Karoonda has been investigated using a JEOL 2000FX analytical electron microscope (AEM) with an attached Tracor-Northem TN5500 energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS). In previous studies (Scott and Taylor, 1985; Fitzgerald, 1979; Van Schmus, 1969), the petrography of the Karoonda matrix has been described as consisting largely of coarse-grained (50-200 urn in size) olivine and plagioclase (20-100 um in size), associated with micrometer sized magnetite and rare sulphides. AEM observations on matrix show that in addition to these large grains, there is a significant fraction (10 vol%) of interstitial fine grained phases « 5 urn). The mineralogy of these fine-grained phases differs in some respects from that of the coarser-grained matrix identified by optical and SEM techniques (Scott and Taylor, 1985; Fitzgerald, 1979; Van Schmus, 1969). I~ particular crystals of two compositionally distinct pyroxenes « 2 urn in size) have been identified which have not been previously observed in Karoonda by other analytical techniques. Thin film microanalyses (Mackinnon et al., 1986) of these two pyroxenes indicate compositions consistent with augite and low-Ca pyroxene (- Fs27). Fine-grained anhedral olivine « 2 urn size) is the most abundant phase with composition -Fa29' This composition is essentially indistinguishable from that determined for coarser-grained matrix olivines using an electron microprobe (Scott and Taylor, 1985; Fitzgerald, 1979; Van Schmus, 1969). All olivines are associated with subhedral magnetites « 1 urn size) which contain significant Cr (- 2%) and Al (- 1%) as was also noted for larger sized Karoonda magnetites by Delaney et al. (1985). It has recently been suggested (Burgess et al., 1987) on the basis of sulphur release profiles for S-isotope analyses of Karoonda that CaS04 (anhydrite) may be present. However, no sulphate phase has, as yet, been identified in the matrix of Karoonda. Low magnification contrast images suggest that Karoonda may have a significant porosity within the fine-grained matrix fraction. Most crystals are anhedral and do not show evidence for significant compaction. Individual grains often show single point contact with other grains which result in abundant intergranular voids. These voids frequently contain epoxy which was used as part of the specimen preparation procedure due to the friable nature of the bulk sample.

Grain size distributions of Magneli phases and metallic titanium in chondritic porous interplanetary dust particles

A mineralogical survey of chondritic interplanetary dust particles (IDPs)showed that these micrometeorites differ significantly in form and texture from components of carbonaceous chondrites and contain some mineral assemblages which do not occur in any meteorite class1. Models of chondritic IDP mineral evolution generally ignore the typical (ultra-) fine grain size of consituent minerals which range between 0.002-0.1µm in size2. The chondritic porous (CP) subset of chondritic IDPs is probably debris from short period comets although evidence for a cometary origin is still circumstantial3. If CP IDPs represent dust from regions of the Solar System in which comet accretion occurred, it can be argued that pervasive mineralogical evolution of IDP dust has been arrested due to cryogenic storage in comet nuclei. Thus, preservation in CP IDPs of "unusual meteorite minerals", such as oxides of tin, bismuth and titanium4, should not be dismissed casually. These minerals may contain specific information about processes that occurred in regions of the solar nebula, and early Solar System, which spawned the IDP parent bodies such as comets and C, P and D asteroids6. It is not fully appreciated that the apparent disparity between the mineralogy of CP IDPs and carbonaceous chondrite matrix may also be caused by the choice of electron-beam techniques with different analytical resolution. For example, Mg-Si-Fe distributions of Cl matrix obtained by "defocussed beam" microprobe analyses are displaced towards lower Fe-values when using analytical electron microscope (AEM)data which resolve individual mineral grains of various layer silicates and magnetite in the same matrix6,7. In general, "unusual meteorite minerals" in chondritic IDPs, such as metallic titanium, Tin01-n(Magneli phases) and anatase8 add to the mineral data base of fine-grained Solar System materials and provide constraints on processes that occurred in the early Solar System.

"Fair" government contracts for community service provision : time to curb unfettered executive freedom?

All Australian governments are significantly increasing the use of contracted community service provision through not for profit (NFP) organisations. These transactions occur through grant arrangements which take the form of standard contracts or deeds rather than drawing on statutory authority. Government inquiries bodies have consistently reported and raised concerns about the fairness of such standard grant contract terms, but failed to provide any mechanism whereby fairness can be assured. The Productivity Commission has suggested that the resulting poor relationship results in inappropriate risk transfer, micro-management, disincentives to innovate and poor service provision. This paper develops and tests a fairness measure based on the principles of the Australian Consumer Law which legislates fairness protections for standard consumer contracts.  

Preparing the next generation of HRM professionals : an international comparison of tertiary HRM programs

The future of the HRM profession depends to at least some extent on the quality of preparation of the next generation of HR professionals. This paper examines bachelor degree programs in HRM and the role of professional associations as influencers of curricula. Some 39% of the 599 AACSB and EQUIS-accredited institutions sampled offer undergraduate degrees in HRM. The programs vary in emphasis on HRM competencies. Unsurprisingly, all include foundation work (perhaps a third of the content) in business management. Grouping degree content by regions globally allows benchmarking of degrees against international trends, along with consideration of the increasingly significant influence on curricula by professional bodies, in preparing the next generation of HRM practitioners to manage in organisations that will require strategic thinking, specialist technical skills, and interpersonal competence.

Mineralogy of chondritic porous aggregates : current status

Chondritic porous aggregates (CPA's) belong to an important subset of small particles (usually between 5 and 50 micrometers) collected from the stratosphere by high flying aircraft. These aggregates are approximately chondritic in elemental abundance and are composed of many thousands of small­er, submicrometer particles. CPA particles have been the subject of intensive study during the past few years [1-3] and there is strong evidence that they are a new class of extraterrestrial material not represented in the meteorite collection [3,4]. However, CPA's may be related to carbonaceous chondrites and in fact, both may be part of a continuum of primitive extraterrestrial materials [5]. The importance of CPA's stems from suggestions that they are very primitive solar system material possibly derived from early formed proto­ planets, chondritic parent bodies, or comets [3, 6]. To better understand the origin and evolution of these particles, we have attempted to summarize all of the mineralogical data on identified CPA's published since about 1976.

Antigenic specificity of a monovalent versus polyvalent MOMP based Chlamydia pecorum vaccine in koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus)

Chlamydia continues to be a major pathogen of koalas. The bacterium is associated with ocular, respiratory and urogenital tract infections and a vaccine is considered the best option to limit the decline of mainland koala populations. Over the last 20 years, efforts to develop a chlamydial vaccine in humans have focussed on the use of the chlamydial major outer membrane protein (MOMP). Potential problems with the use of MOMP-based vaccines relate to the wide range of genetic diversity in its four variable domains. In the present study, we evaluated the immune response of koalas vaccinated with a MOMP-based C. pecorum vaccine formulated with genetically and serologically diverse MOMPs. Animals immunised with individual MOMPs developed strong antibody and lymphocyte proliferation responses to both homologous as well as heterologous MOMP proteins. Importantly, we also showed that vaccine induced antibodies which effectively neutralised various heterologous strains of koala C. pecorum in an in vitro assay. Finally, we also demonstrated that the immune responses in monovalent as well as polyvalent MOMP vaccine groups were able to recognise whole chlamydial elementary bodies, illustrating the feasibility of developing an effective MOMP based C. pecorum vaccine that could protect against a range of strains.