Effect of field damping layer on two step absorption of quantum dots solar cells

Multi-stacked InAs/AlGaAs quantum dot solar cells (QDSCs) introduced with field damping layers (FDL) which sustain the junction built-in potential have been studied. Without an external bias condition, the external quantum efficiency (EQE) of QD layers are reduced by introducing the thick FDL, because the carrier escape due to built-in electric field was suppressed. On the other hand, the photocurrent production due to two-step absorption is increased by the formation of flat-band QD structure for QDSC with thick FDL.

Equipment and procedures for ON-SITE testing of PV plants and BIPV

Actual system performance of a PV system can differ from its expected behaviour.. This is the main reason why the performance of PV systems should be monitored, analyzed and, if needed, improved on. Some of the current testing procedures relating to the electrical behaviour of PV systems are appropriated for detecting electrical performance losses, but they are not well-suited to reveal hidden defects in the modules of PV plants and BIPV, which can lead to future losses. This paper reports on the tests and procedures used to evaluate the performance of PV systems, and especially on a novel procedure for quick on-site measurements and defect recognition caused by overheating in PV modules located in operating PV installations.

Automatic fault detection on BIPV systems without solar irradiation data

BIPV systems are small PV generation units spread out over the territory, and whose characteristics are very diverse. This makes difficult a cost-effective procedure for monitoring, fault detection, performance analyses, operation and maintenance. As a result, many problems affecting BIPV systems go undetected. In order to carry out effective automatic fault detection procedures, we need a performance indicator that is reliable and that can be applied on many PV systems at a very low cost. The existing approaches for analyzing the performance of PV systems are often based on the Performance Ratio (PR), whose accuracy depends on good solar irradiation data, which in turn can be very difficult to obtain or cost-prohibitive for the BIPV owner. We present an alternative fault detection procedure based on a performance indicator that can be constructed on the sole basis of the energy production data measured at the BIPV systems. This procedure does not require the input of operating conditions data, such as solar irradiation, air temperature, or wind speed. The performance indicator, called Performance to Peers (P2P), is constructed from spatial and temporal correlations between the energy output of neighboring and similar PV systems. This method was developed from the analysis of the energy production data of approximately 10,000 BIPV systems located in Europe. The results of our procedure are illustrated on the hourly, daily and monthly data monitored during one year at one BIPV system located in the South of Belgium. Our results confirm that it is possible to carry out automatic fault detection procedures without solar irradiation data. P2P proves to be more stable than PR most of the time, and thus constitutes a more reliable performance indicator for fault detection procedures. We also discuss the main limitations of this novel methodology, and we suggest several future lines of research that seem promising to improve on these procedures.

3D simulation of complex shading affecting PV systems taking benefit from the power of graphics cards developed for the video game industry

Shading reduces the power output of a photovoltaic (PV) system. The design engineering of PV systems requires modeling and evaluating shading losses. Some PV systems are affected by complex shading scenes whose resulting PV energy losses are very difficult to evaluate with current modeling tools. Several specialized PV design and simulation software include the possibility to evaluate shading losses. They generally possess a Graphical User Interface (GUI) through which the user can draw a 3D shading scene, and then evaluate its corresponding PV energy losses. The complexity of the objects that these tools can handle is relatively limited. We have created a software solution, 3DPV, which allows evaluating the energy losses induced by complex 3D scenes on PV generators. The 3D objects can be imported from specialized 3D modeling software or from a 3D object library. The shadows cast by this 3D scene on the PV generator are then directly evaluated from the Graphics Processing Unit (GPU). Thanks to the recent development of GPUs for the video game industry, the shadows can be evaluated with a very high spatial resolution that reaches well beyond the PV cell level, in very short calculation times. A PV simulation model then translates the geometrical shading into PV energy output losses. 3DPV has been implemented using WebGL, which allows it to run directly from a Web browser, without requiring any local installation from the user. This also allows taken full benefits from the information already available from Internet, such as the 3D object libraries. This contribution describes, step by step, the method that allows 3DPV to evaluate the PV energy losses caused by complex shading. We then illustrate the results of this methodology to several application cases that are encountered in the world of PV systems design. Keywords: 3D, modeling, simulation, GPU, shading, losses, shadow mapping, solar, photovoltaic, PV, WebGL

Methodology of quantifying curvature of Fresnel lenses and its effect on CPV module performance

Fresnel lenses used as primary optics in concentrating photovoltaic modules may show warping produced by lens manufacturing or module assembly (e.g., stress during molding or weight load) or due to stress during operation (e.g., mismatch of thermal expansion between different materials). To quantify this problem, a simple method called “checkerboard method” is presented. The proposed method identifies shape errors on the front surface of primary lenses by analyzing the Fresnel reflections. This paper also deals with the quantification of the effects these curvatures have on their optical performance and on the electrical performance of concentrating modules incorporating them. This method can be used to perform quality control of Fresnel lenses in scenarios of high volume production.

Induced thermo-mechanical stress in CPV receivers with cycled high intensity light

CPV receivers are made of materials with very different lineal expansion coefficients. Strong variations in DNI due to the passage of clouds can cause sudden temperature changes that creates mechanical stress. For common solder and metal filled polymers the plastic limit could be reached causing substantial fatigue. The best forecast of receiver reliability is therefore achieved by applying an intermittent light source with nominal irradiance level and a number of cycles equal to the expected cloud passages for a given site. The UPM has developed specialized equipment, dubbed the LYSS (Light cYcling Stressing Source), for carrying out such experiments. The small thermal capacity of receivers allows simulating more than 25000 cycles per week. The number of deep transients expected for Madrid in 30 years operation, based on available data, is about 45000. We are currently using the system to cycle a ?Ge/Ag Epoxy/aluminum? receiver, which shows no degradation after 20000 cycles. The equipment can cast up to 200 and 70 W/cm2 on 0.1 and 1 cm2 cells, respectively.

Component integration strategies in metamorphic 4-junction III-V concentrator solar cells

Progressing beyond 3-junction inverted-metamorphic multijunction solar cells grown on GaAs substrates, to 4-junction devices, requires the development of high quality metamorphic 0.7 eV GaInAs solar cells. Once accomplished, the integration of this subcell into a full, Monolithic, series connected, 4J-IMM structure demands the development of a metamorphic tunnel junction lattice matched to the 1eV GaInAs subcell. Moreover, the 0.7 eV junction adds about 2 hours of growth time to the structure, implying a heavier annealing of the subcells and tunnel junctions grown first. The final 4J structure is above 20 Pm thick, with about half of this thickness used by the metamorphic buffers required to change the lattice constant throughout the structure. Thinning of these buffers would help reduce the total thickness of the 4J structure to decrease its growth cost and the annealing time. These three topics: development of a metamorphic tunnel junction for the 4th junction, analysis of the annealing, and thinning of the structure, are tackled in this work. The results presented show the successful implementation of an antimonide-based tunnel junction for the 4th junction and of pathways to mitigate the impact of annealing and reduce the thickness of the metamorphic buffers.

Preliminary temperature accelerated life test (ALT) on lattice mismatched triple-junction concentrator solar cells-on-carriers

A temperature accelerated life test on concentrator lattice mismatched Ga0.37In0.63P/Ga0.83In0.17As/Ge triple-junction solar cells-on-carrier is being carried out. The solar cells have been tested at three different temperatures: 125, 145 and 165°C and the nominal photo-current condition (500X) is emulated by injecting current in darkness. The final objective of these tests is to evaluate the reliability, warranty period, and failure mechanism of these solar cells in a moderate period of time. Up to now only the test at 165°C has finished. Therefore, we cannot provide complete reliability information, but we have carried out preliminary data and failure analysis with the current results.

V-substituted In2S3: an intermediate band material with photocatalytic activity in the whole visible light range

We proposed in our previous work V-substituted In2S3 as an intermediate band (IB) material able to enhance the efficiency of photovoltaic cells by combining two photons to achieve a higher energy electron excitation, much like natural photosynthesis. Here this hyper-doped material is tested in a photocatalytic reaction using wavelength-controlled light. The results evidence its ability to use photons with wavelengths of up to 750 nm, i.e. with energy significantly lower than the bandgap (=2.0 eV) of non-substituted In2S3, driving with them the photocatalytic reaction at rates comparable to those of non-substituted In2S3 in its photoactivity range (λ ≤ 650 nm). Photoluminescence spectra evidence that the same bandgap excitation as in V-free In2S3 occurs in V-substituted In2S3 upon illumination with photons in the same sub-bandgap energy range which is effective in photocatalysis, and its linear dependence on light intensity proves that this is not due to a nonlinear optical property. This evidences for the first time that a two-photon process can be active in photocatalysis in a single-phase material. Quantum calculations using GW-type many-body perturbation theory suggest that the new band introduced in the In2S3 gap by V insertion is located closer to the conduction band than to the valence band, so that hot carriers produced by the two-photon process would be of electron type; they also show that the absorption coefficients of both transitions involving the IB are of significant and similar magnitude. The results imply that V-substituted In2S3, besides being photocatalytically active in the whole visible light range (a property which could be used for the production of solar fuels), could make possible photovoltaic cells of improved efficiency.

Optoelectronic tweezers under arbitrary illumination patterns: theoretical simulations and comparison to experiment

Photovoltaic tweezers are a promising tool to place and move particles on the surface of a photovoltaic material in a controlled way. To exploit this new technique it is necessary to accurately know the electric field created by a specific illumination on the surface of the crystal and above it. This paper describes a numerical algorithm to obtain this electric field generated by several relevant light patterns, and uses them to calculate the electrophoretic potential acting over neutral, polarizable particles in the proximity of the crystal. The results are compared to experiments carried out in LiNbO3 with good overall agreement.

Self-consistent relativistic band structure of the CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite

The electronic structure and properties of the orthorhombic phase of the CH 3 NH 3 PbI 3 perovskite are computed with density functional theory. The structure, optimized using a van der Waals functional, reproduces closely the unit cell volume. The experimental band gap is reproduced accurately by combining spin-orbit effects and a hybrid functional in which the fraction of exact exchange is tuned self-consistently to the optical dielectric constant. Including spin-orbit coupling strongly reduces the anisotropy of the effective mass tensor, predicting a low electron effective mass in all crystal directions. The computed binding energy of the unrelaxed exciton agrees with experimental data, and the values found imply a fast exciton dissociation at ambient temperature. Also polaron masses for the separated carriers are estimated. The values of all these parameters agree with recent indications that fast dynamics and large carrier diffusion lengths are key in the high photovoltaic efficiencies shown by these materials.

Impact of metal-organic vapor phase epitaxy environment on silicon bulk lifetime for III–V-on-Si multijunction solar cells

With the final goal of integrating III-V materials on silicon substrates for tandem solar cells, the influence of the Metal-Organic Vapor Phase Epitaxy (MOVPE) environment on the minority carrier properties of silicon wafers has been evaluated. These properties will essentially determine the photovoltaic performance of the bottom cell in a III-V-on-Si tandem solar cell. A comparison of the base minority carrier lifetimes obtained for different thermal processes carried out in a MOVPE reactor on Czochralski silicon wafers has been carried out. An important degradation of minority carrier lifetime during the surface preparation (i.e. H2 anneal) has been observed. Three different mechanisms have been proposed for explaining this behavior: 1) the introduction of extrinsic impurities coming from the reactor; 2) the activation of intrinsic lifetime killing impurities coming from the wafer itself; and finally, 3) the formation of crystal defects, which eventually become recombination centers. The effect of the emitter formation by phosphorus diffusion has also been evaluated. In this sense, it has been reported that lifetime can be recovered during the emitter formation either by the effect of the P on extracting impurities, or by the role of the atomic hydrogen on passivating the defects.

Analysis of thermo-mechanical stress effects on CPV receiver under high intensity light cycles

After construction of the LYSS (Light cYcling Stressing Source) in early 2014, several CPV receivers, with and without secondary optical element (SOE) have been aged under fast transient illumination cycling,. The test plan for Madrid consisted of 50000 cycles. Receivers with poor heat spreaders showed low reliability but those with thicker metal layers passed the test well. The operation of LYSS along 8 months, after more than 250000 cycles, did not show any significant failure, except lamp reposition every 120 hours, in average. The equipment seems valid for unveiling weak receiver designs with respect to intensive illumination, in steady and transient modes.

Characterisation of the operation & maintenance phase in PV rural electrification programmes

Con 1.300 millones de personas en el mundo sin acceso a la electricidad (la mayoría en entornos rurales de países empobrecidos), la energía solar fotovoltaica constituye una solución viable técnica y económicamente para electrificar las zonas más remotas del planeta donde las redes eléctricas convencionales no llegan. Casi todos los países en el mundo han desarrollado algún tipo de programa de electrificación fotovoltaica rural durante los últimos 40 años, principalmente los países más pobres, donde a través de diferentes modelos de financiación, se han instalado millones de sistemas solares domiciliarios (pequeños sistemas fotovoltaicos para uso doméstico). Durante este largo período, se han ido superando muchas barreras, como la mejora de la calidad de los sistemas fotovoltaicos, la reducción de costes, la optimización del diseño y del dimensionado de los sistemas, la disponibilidad financiera para implantar programas de electrificación rural, etc. Gracias a esto, la electrificación rural descentralizada ha experimentado recientemente un salto de escala caracterizada por la implantación de grandes programas con miles de sistemas solares domiciliarios e integrando largos períodos de mantenimiento. Muchos de estos grandes programas se están llevando a cabo con limitado éxito, ya que generalmente parten de supuestos e hipótesis poco contrastadas con la realidad, comprometiendo así un retorno económico que permita el desarrollo de esta actividad a largo plazo. En este escenario surge un nuevo reto: el de cómo garantizar la sostenibilidad de los grandes programas de electrificación rural fotovoltaica. Se argumenta que la principal causa de esta falta de rentabilidad es el imprevisto alto coste de la fase de operación y mantenimiento. Cuestiones clave tales como la estructura de costes de operación y mantenimiento o la fiabilidad de los componentes del sistema fotovoltaico no están bien caracterizados hoy en día. Esta situación limita la capacidad de diseñar estructuras de mantenimiento capaces de asegurar la sostenibilidad y la rentabilidad del servicio de operación y mantenimiento en estos programas. Esta tesis doctoral tiene como objetivo responder a estas cuestiones. Se ha realizado varios estudios sobre la base de un gran programa de electrificación rural fotovoltaica real llevado a cabo en Marruecos con más de 13.000 sistemas solares domiciliarios instalados. Sobre la base de este programa se ha hecho una evaluación en profundidad de la fiabilidad de los sistemas solares a partir de los datos de mantenimiento recogidos durante 5 años con más de 80.000 inputs. Los resultados han permitido establecer las funciones de fiabilidad de los equipos tal y como se comportan en condiciones reales de operación, las tasas de fallos y los tiempos medios hasta el fallo para los principales componentes del sistema, siendo este el primer caso de divulgación de resultados de este tipo en el campo de la electrificación rural fotovoltaica. Los dos principales componentes del sistema solar domiciliario, la batería y el módulo fotovoltaico, han sido analizados en campo a través de una muestra de 41 sistemas trabajando en condiciones reales pertenecientes al programa solar marroquí. Por un lado se ha estudiado la degradación de la capacidad de las baterías y por otro la degradación de potencia de los módulos fotovoltaicos. En el caso de las baterías, los resultados nos han permitido caracterizar la curva de degradación en capacidad llegando a obtener una propuesta de nueva definición del umbral de vida útil de las baterías en electrificación rural. También sobre la base del programa solar de Marruecos se ha llevado a cabo un estudio de caracterización de los costes reales de operación y mantenimiento a partir de la base de datos de contabilidad del programa registrados durante 5 años. Los resultados del estudio han permitido definir cuáles son costes que más incidencia tienen en el coste global. Se han obtenido los costes unitarios por sistema instalado y se han calculado los montantes de las cuotas de mantenimiento de los usuarios para garantizar la rentabilidad de la operación y mantenimiento. Finalmente, se propone un modelo de optimización matemática para diseñar estructuras de mantenimiento basado en los resultados de los estudios anteriores. La herramienta, elaborada mediante programación lineal entera mixta, se ha aplicado al programa marroquí con el fin de validar el modelo propuesto. ABSTRACT With 1,300 million people worldwide deprived of access to electricity (mostly in rural environments), photovoltaic solar energy has proven to be a cost‐effective solution and the only hope for electrifying the most remote inhabitants of the planet, where conventional electric grids do not reach because they are unaffordable. Almost all countries in the world have had some kind of rural photovoltaic electrification programme during the past 40 years, mainly the poorer countries, where through different organizational models, millions of solar home systems (small photovoltaic systems for domestic use) have been installed. During this long period, many barriers have been overcome, such as quality enhancement, cost reduction, the optimization of designing and sizing, financial availability, etc. Thanks to this, decentralized rural electrification has recently experienced a change of scale characterized by new programmes with thousands of solar home systems and long maintenance periods. Many of these large programmes are being developed with limited success, as they have generally been based on assumptions that do not correspond to reality, compromising the economic return that allows long term activity. In this scenario a new challenge emerges, which approaches the sustainability of large programmes. It is argued that the main cause of unprofitability is the unexpected high cost of the operation and maintenance of the solar systems. In fact, the lack of a paradigm in decentralized rural services has led to many private companies to carry out decentralized electrification programmes blindly. Issues such as the operation and maintenance cost structure or the reliability of the solar home system components have still not been characterized. This situation does not allow optimized maintenance structure to be designed to assure the sustainability and profitability of the operation and maintenance service. This PhD thesis aims to respond to these needs. Several studies have been carried out based on a real and large photovoltaic rural electrification programme carried out in Morocco with more than 13,000 solar home systems. An in‐depth reliability assessment has been made from a 5‐year maintenance database with more than 80,000 maintenance inputs. The results have allowed us to establish the real reliability functions, the failure rate and the main time to failure of the main components of the system, reporting these findings for the first time in the field of rural electrification. Both in‐field experiments on the capacity degradation of batteries and power degradation of photovoltaic modules have been carried out. During the experiments both samples of batteries and modules were operating under real conditions integrated into the solar home systems of the Moroccan programme. In the case of the batteries, the results have enabled us to obtain a proposal of definition of death of batteries in rural electrification. A cost assessment of the Moroccan experience based on a 5‐year accounting database has been carried out to characterize the cost structure of the programme. The results have allowed the major costs of the photovoltaic electrification to be defined. The overall cost ratio per installed system has been calculated together with the necessary fees that users would have to pay to make the operation and maintenance affordable. Finally, a mathematical optimization model has been proposed to design maintenance structures based on the previous study results. The tool has been applied to the Moroccan programme with the aim of validating the model.

1D and 2D neutral particle patterning by dielectrophoretic forces on z-cut Fe:LiNbO3 crystals

1D and 2D patterning of uncharged micro- and nanoparticles via dielectrophoretic forces on photovoltaic z-cut Fe:LiNbO3 have been investigated for the first time. The technique has been successfully applied with dielectric micro-particles of CaCO3 (diameter d = 1-3 μm) and metal nanoparticles of Al (d = 70 nm). At difference with previous experiments in x- and y-cut, the obtained patterns locally reproduce the light distribution with high fidelity. A simple model is provided to analyse the trapping process. The results show the remarkably good capabilities of this geometry for high quality 2D light-induced dielectrophoretic patterning overcoming the important limitations presented by previous configurations.