Pollination ecology of Tabebuia aurea (Manso) Benth. & Hook. and T. ochracea (Cham.) Standl. (Bignoniaceae) in Central Brazil cerrado vegetation

The pollination ecology and breeding systems of Tabebuia aurea (Manso) Benth. & Hook., and T. ochracea (Cham.) Standl. were investigated in an area of cerrado vegetation in the Federal District of Brazil. These species occur sympatrically, flower massively and synchronously for a month, during the dry season (July to September). Both have diurnal anthesis, with similar floral structures, a yellow tubular corolla and produce nectar. Fourteen species of bees visited both Tabebuia species, but, only three Centris species and Bombus morio, were considered potential pollinators, because of their high frequency on the flowers and their efficiency in carrying pollen. Tests on the breeding systems of T. aurea and T. ochracea demonstrated that boths species are self-incompatible, with late-acting self-incompatibility. The proportion of fruit set from cross pollination (T. aurea 17.2% and T. ochracea 12.3%) in both species was low considering the great number of flowers displayed. This suggests a lack of maternal resources for fruit-set. The great amount of seeds per fruit (about 92 in T. aurea and 285 in T. ochracea) may represent an investment of maternal resources allocated on higher quality of fertilized ovules.

Inter-annual variations in the floristic and population structure of an herbaceous community of "caatinga" vegetation in Pernambuco, Brazil

The influence of climatic variations on the herbaceous component of the "caatinga" vegetation was examined in the state of Pernambuco, Brazil. A total of 105 1 × 1 m-plots were established, of which 35 were in a level micro-habitat, 35 in a riparian micro-habitat, and 35 in a stony microhabitat. During two consecutive years all herbaceous plants in these plots were counted, measured (height and diameter), and collected for identification. The Shannon-Wiener diversity index and the equitability were calculated for each year, as well as the density, frequency, dominance, total basal area and importance index for each species. The total annual pluviometric was 819.5 and 448.8 mm in 2002 and 2003, respectively. The herbaceous flora in the study area was composed of 71 species, of which 58 were sampled in the plots. The families with the greatest species richness were Malvaceae (8 species), Euphorbiaceae (7), Poaceae (6), Convolvulaceae (4), Fabaceae (4), and Portulacaceae (4). The diversity indices were 2.66 and 3.01 nats ind-1 in 2002 and 2003, respectively. The density, frequency, dominance and importance value of herbaceous populations, as well as, the height and diameter of plants were low in the dryer year. The riparian group was the most isolated of the microhabitats examined, both in terms of its floristic and its population structure. Annual seasonal climatic variations greatly modified these populations structure during the course of this study, emphasizing the fact that long-term studies are needed in order to better understand the dynamics of the herbaceous component of the "caatinga" vegetation.

Waste Management in Commercial Activity: State-of-the-Art and the Potential Innovation in the Urban Areas of Hanoi, Vietnam

As the rapid development of the society as well as the lifestyle, the generation of commercial waste is getting more complicated to control. The situation of packaging waste and food waste – the main fractions of commercial waste in different countries in Europe and Asia is analyzed in order to evaluate and suggest necessary improvements for the existing waste management system in the city of Hanoi, Vietnam. From all waste generation sources of the city, a total amount of approximately 4000 tons of mixed waste is transported to the composting facility and the disposal site, which emits a huge amount of 1,6Mt of GHG emission to the environment. Recycling activity is taking place spontaneously by the informal pickers, leads to the difficulty in managing the whole system and uncertainty of the overall data. With a relative calculation, resulting in only approximately 0,17Mt CO2 equivalent emission, incinerator is suggested to be the solution of the problem with overloaded landfill and raising energy demand within the inhabitants.

Reproductive phenology, pollination and seed dispersal syndromes on sandstone outcrop vegetation in the "Chapada Diamantina", northeastern Brazil: population and community analyses

Vegetation on rock outcrops in the "Chapada Diamantina" (soil islands) is often aggregated and surrounded by nude rock surfaces, thus creating natural units with well defined limits. The flowering and fruiting cycles of plants on 58 soil islands at altitudes between 1,100 and 1,140 meters above sea leavel were analyzed at Mãe Inácia Peak (12°27' S and 41°28' W) in the "Chapada Diamantina", Bahia, Brazil. The presence/absence of flowering and fruiting species on each soil island, and their respective cover areas were analyzed at both the population and community levels, and the phenophases of flowering and fruiting were observed during 24 successive months. The analyses of pollination and seed dispersal syndromes indicated that animals are more important in pollination than in seed dispersal (which is predominantly by anemochory and autochory). The flowering and fruiting of plants with animal pollination syndromes were correlated with rainfall and temperature. The flowering season varied during the year according to the pollination syndrome involved: entomophily was predominant from summer through autumn, ornithophily was predominant during winter, and anemophily in the spring. The staggered timing of flowering and fruiting among different species provides a nearly continuous supply of resources for the local fauna.

Spatial variation in the structure and floristic composition of "restinga" vegetation in southeastern Brazil

We examined large-scale spatial variation of structural parameters and floristic composition in open Clusia scrub, a vegetation type of the Brazilian "restingas" (sandy coastal plain vegetation). This vegetation is organized in islands separated by sandy stretches with sparse herbaceous vegetation. We located 12 sample areas on three consecutive beach ridges, lying parallel to the coastline and at different distances from the ocean, in close proximity to two lagoons (Cabiúnas and Comprida). Each sample area was divided into three strips. We used the line intercept method to sample all woody plants ³ 50 cm tall. We used nested ANOVA to verify structural variation between different sampling scales. TWINSPAN analysis was performed to examine the variation in floristic composition between areas. The overall diversity index was 3.07. Six species are repeatedly dominant throughout the entire sampling area. There was homogeneity in relation to diversity and species richness between beach ridges but not within beach ridges. Floristic composition and structural parameters did not vary in relation to distance from the sea but floristic composition did vary as a function of proximity to Cabiúnas or Comprida lagoon. Differences in plant cover between sample areas may be related to the paleoformation of this sandy coastal plain.

Rock outcrop vegetation in Brazil: a brief overview

This paper overviews the special issue of the Brazilian Journal of Botany dedicated to "Rock outcrop vegetation in Brazil". The main topics covered by this issue are phytogeography and vegetation ecology, plant life on shallow soils, plant reproduction and auto-ecology, morpho-physiology and plant adaptation, and finally conservation and global change. This collection of studies, in addition to other recent publications on Brazilian rocky outcrop vegetation, show that measurements of most of the relevant ecological and evolutionary parameters are under way and that scientific attention is now given to most Brazilian regions. However, there are still several gaps to be bridged: 1) inselbergs and high mountains in the Amazon and the Brazilian northeast, in particular, are still largely unknown to science; 2) long-term studies are almost totally unavailable, which hinders global change monitoring and assessment; 3) national and international networking are urgently needed to speed up scientific production about such habitats.

Rock outcrop habitats in the Venezuelan Guayana lowlands: their main vegetation types and floristic components

The Guayana Shield, located in north-eastern South America, consists of a highly complex and composite mosaic of landscape elements. Amongst these, inselbergs are very conspicuous, because of their peculiar shape and their unusual associated vegetation. Geologically, these rock outcrops are part of the underlying ancient igneous-metamorphic basement and occur mainly in the lowlands of the periphery of the shield. As azonal habitats, inselbergs harbour a highly specialized flora. The characteristic vegetation is composed of lithophytic and savanna-like plant communities, as well as low dry forests. As a whole, the vegetation of an inselberg may be interpreted as a mosaic of marginal habitats. Therefore a large number of taxa find suitable niches in a quite condensed space. Gradients of soil depth and water availability are the main factors determining the floristic composition. A preliminary floristic inventory of the Venezuelan inselberg flora comprises 614 vascular plant species. 24% of them are endemic to the Guayana region, 15% are endemic to inselbergs of the Guayana region. The distribution patterns of these latter, eco-endemic species allows to distinguish a northern and a southern inselberg district. The two districts overlap in the Átures area, in the surroundings of Puerto Ayacucho, where a true centre of endemism is located. The distinction into two districts is emphasised by different phytogeographic relations. The southern inselberg district shows connections to the "tepui" flora, whereas the northern district reveals phytogeographic relations to the Caribbean region as well as to the Brazilian Shield. Possible explanations for the floristic interchange across the equator are discussed.

Floristics, structure and soil of insular vegetation in four quartzite-sandstone outcrops of "Chapada Diamantina", Northeast Brazil

Soil islands on rocky surfaces often harbor aggregated vegetation that consists of insular plant communities. These islands are typical of the rocky outcrops and in various parts of Brazil form the so-called "campos rupestres" vegetation. Four of such sites have been selected in the state of Bahia, Northeast Brazil, for this comparative study on floristics and vegetation structure: three areas situated inside the "Parque Nacional da Chapada Diamantina" (Guiné, Fumaça and "Gerais da Fumaça") and one is at the border of the Environmental Protection Area of "Marimbus-Iraquara" ("Mãe Inácia"). All occurring vegetation islands were studied in four random plots of 10 × 10 m per site. Soil was often shallow, sandy and acidic. Vascular plant species were determined, with respective life forms and canopy coverage areas. The total number of species when all four sites were added was 135, and the number of species per island varied from 2 to 32. The areas of the 214 soil islands varied from 0.015 to 91.9 m², totaling 568 m² in the four sites. Monocotyledon families were dominant, essentially Velloziaceae, as well as Orchidaceae, Bromeliaceae, Amaryllidaceae and Cyperaceae. Among the eudicotyledons, dominant families were mainly Clusiaceae, Asteraceae and Melastomataceae. The biological spectra revealed that phanerophytes and hemicryptophytes predominated among the life forms, while chamaephytes had the largest coverage area. Epilithic and desiccant chamaephytes composed the most conspicuous interspecific associations, and were probably related to early successional processes. Sites closest to one another were not the most similar in structure, indicating that other factors more relevant than distance might be involved in the abundance of species in space.

Structural analysis of the vegetation on a highland granitic rock outcrop in Southeast Brazil

Granitic rock outcrops of the Brazilian southeast are either coastal or inland. The latter can often have high altitudes, such as in the summits of "Serra do Mar" and "Serra da Mantiqueira", where they are known as "Campos de Altitude". The landscape on these high altitude plateaux is often a mosaic of shrubs and treelets within a bunchgrass matrix, with sparse pteridophytes and other herbs, interspersed with variable extensions of rock outcrops. Despite the pervasiveness of rock outcrops in the Brazilian landscape, studies on the structural analysis of the vegetation on such formations are scarce. This study aimed to analyze the structure of the vegetation on a highland granitic rock outcrop in "Parque Estadual da Serra do Brigadeiro", state of Minas Gerais, Southeast Brazil (42°20' - 42°40' S and 20°20' - 21°00' W, 1,722 m of elevation ). Quantitative parameters of absolute and relative frequency and dominance (cover) were estimated. The group analysis used the Jaccard similarity index. Trilepis lhotzkiana, Panicum sp. 1, and Vellozia variegata presented the highest relative frequencies, relative dominances and importance values. These three species, along with Dyckia bracteata, Rhynchospora emaciate, and Tibouchina cf. manicata, represented 98.3% of the relative dominance. The remaining 1.7% referred to 22 remaining species. The distinction among quadrats within formed groups by cluster analysis was due to the great number of low frequency species.

The potential of natural regeneration of rocky outcrop vegetation on rupestrian field soils in "Serra do Cipó", Brazil

An area's innate potential to regenerate represents a crucial factor for its conservation and management. The seed rain and seed bank are important agents in the regeneration process. Seed banks are particularly important in communities where there is a high proportion of obligate seeders. Rocky outcrops are habitats where most part of the plant species depends on their seeds to reproduce and maintain viable populations. Therefore, seed banks ought to be important in this vegetation physiognomy. We test the hypotheses that the seed bank of the rocky outcrops found in the rupestrian fields of "Serra do Cipó", Brazil, is richer in species and denser than those formed on different vegetation physiognomies neighboring the outcrops. We then compared species abundance, species richness and composition in the rocky outcrops' seed banks with those of sandy and peaty bogs, forests, gallery forests, and "cerrados". Furthermore, we report on the natural regeneration potential of these soils by assessing a greenhouse study on seedling emergence. Soil samples were collected from 0 to 5 and 5 to 10 cm of depth. Rocky outcrops had the poorest in species and less dense seed bank and showed segregation in species composition. Emergence was greater in the most superficial layer. However, soils on rocky outcrops showed the greatest proportion of endemic threatened species in their seed banks, demonstrating their importance for biodiversity conservation of the "Serra do Cipó" rupestrian fields.

Influence of soil properties on the abundance of plant species in ferruginous rocky soils vegetation, southeastern Brazil

Ferruginous "campos rupestres" are a particular type of vegetation growing on iron-rich primary soils. We investigated the influence of soil properties on plant species abundance at two sites of ferruginous "campos rupestres" and one site of quartzitic "campo rupestre", all of them in "Quadrilátero Ferrífero", in Minas Gerais State, southeastern Brazil. In each site, 30 quadrats were sampled to assess plant species composition and abundance, and soil samples were taken to perform chemical and physical analyses. The analyzed soils are strongly acidic and presented low fertility and high levels of metallic cations; a principal component analysis of soil data showed a clear segregation among sites due mainly to fertility and heavy metals content, especially Cu, Zn, and Pb. The canonical correspondence analysis indicated a strong correlation between plant species abundance and soil properties, also segregating the sites.

Floristic and vegetation structure of a granitic grassland in Southern Brazil

A floristic and structural survey of a natural grassland community was conducted on Morro do Osso, a granitic hill in Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil. Structural data were surveyed in 39 one square meter plots placed over two major grassland areas. An accidental fire has occurred in one of the areas approximately one year prior to our survey, leading to further analysis of parameters differences between sites. The floristic list contains 282 species, whereas the structural survey has found 161 species. Families with highest accumulated importance values were Poaceae, Asteraceae and Fabaceae. The diversity and evenness indexes were 4.51 nats ind-1 and 0.86, respectively. Cluster analysis denoted two groups coinciding with the areas distinguished by the fire disturbance. A similarity analysis between our data and two other data sets from nearby granitic hills resulted in 28% to 35% similarity, with equivalent species-family distribution and many common dominant species, corroborating the concept of a continuous flora along the South Brazilian granitic hills.

The coastal restinga vegetation of Pará, Brazilian Amazon: a synthesis

The present article reviews studies (some unpublished) of the vegetation of coastal sandy soils (restinga) along the coast of Pará State, northern Brazil. A total of 411 higher plant species are reported; Fabaceae, Poaceae, Cyperaceae, Rubiaceae and Myrtaceae are the most species-rich families. Nearly half of the restinga species (48%) are terrestrial herbs; palms, trees and shrubs account for 39% of the species, the remainder being lianas and epiphytes. Species are frequently wide-spread and occur in coastal areas of Southeastern Brazil as well as at inland sites in the Amazon region. Only two species appear to be exclusively coastal; whereas other species appear to exhibit a preference for sandy soils. Plant assemblages are commonly classified by means of "formations" associated with certain habitats but current data do not allow the description of well-defined plant associations. The species composition at different sites along the Pará coast does not show any clear regional grouping pattern. Seasonal changes in the composition of restinga vegetation are most probably linked to variation in ground water level. Restinga forest is mostly low and open; among the dominant tree species are Humiria balsamifera Aubl., Pouteria ramiflora (Mart.) Radlk., Anacardium occidentale L., Byrsonima crassifolia (L.) Kunth, and Tapirira guianensis Aubl.

Plant-plant associations and population structure of four woody plant species in a patchy coastal vegetation of Southeastern Brazil

We examined plant population structure and interspecific associations for juveniles and adults of four woody species (Andira legalis (Vell.) Toledo, Clusia hilariana Schltdl., Protium icicariba (DC.) Marchand and Vernonia crotonoides Sch. Bip. ex Baker) in a patchy vegetation on a sandy coastal plain (restinga) in SE - Brazil. We found 101 vegetation patches in a 0.5 ha grid and these were divided into two distinct size classes, with large patches (> 20 m²) containing the majority of adult individuals of the species studied. The most abundant species, P. icicariba (465 individuals) and C. hilariana (312), had actively regenerating populations, whereas A. legalis (20) and V. crotonoides (338) showed evidence of intermittent regeneration. The regeneration niches of the four species differed as did their investment in vegetative reproduction: for instance, 81% of C. hilariana seedlings were found growing inside tank-bromeliads contrasting with only 3% of P. icicariba in this habitat. Additionally, 28% of regenerants of C. hilariana originated vegetatively, contrasting with only 6% for P. icicariba. All significant associations between species found in the study were positive. There was a positive association between adults of C. hilariana and P. icicariba, as well as between adults of C. hilariana and juveniles of both. This suggests that P. icicariba is successfully establishing under the canopy of C. hilariana and highlights the role of C. hilariana in generating vegetation cover that will be later dominated by other woody plant species, as an important process for maintenance of plant diversity in this restinga vegetation.

Reproductive biology of Protium spruceanum (Burseraceae), a dominant dioecious tree in vegetation corridors in Southeastern Brazil

We investigated the reproductive biology of Protium spruceanum (Benth.) Engler in vegetation corridors of secondary Atlantic forest in Lavras, southern Minas Gerais State, Brazil. The reproductive phenology was investigated fortnightly over a one year period. Floral biology studies involved pollen viability analysis, nectar production, stigmatic receptivity, pollen tube growth, visiting insect species and visit rates. The small, pale yellowish flowers (0.3-0.4 cm diameter) are functionally unisexual and organized in dense inflorescences (ca. 45 flowers). P. spruceanum presented annual flowering between September and November. Staminate flowers supplied a high percentage of viable pollen (90.6%) and relatively abundant nectar (x = 4.5 μL). Pistillate flowers produced only nectar to flower visitors (x = 4.0 μL). The effective pollinators were Apis mellifera and Trigona sp. (Hymenoptera, Apidae). Pollen tubes of cross-pollinated flowers were observed entering the ovaries 48 h after pollination. The fruiting season is from October to March, with a peak in November, coinciding with the rainfall peak. Ecological implications of these findings, and alternative arguments to explain the high genetic diversity at regional landscape are discussed.