Dendritic thickness: a morphometric parameter to classify mouse retinal ganglion cells

To study the dendritic morphology of retinal ganglion cells in wild-type mice we intracellularly injected these cells with Lucifer yellow in an in vitro preparation of the retina. Subsequently, quantified values of dendritic thickness, number of branching points and level of stratification of 73 Lucifer yellow-filled ganglion cells were analyzed by statistical methods, resulting in a classification into 9 groups. The variables dendritic thickness, number of branching points per cell and level of stratification were independent of each other. Number of branching points and level of stratification were independent of eccentricity, whereas dendritic thickness was positively dependent (r = 0.37) on it. The frequency distribution of dendritic thickness tended to be multimodal, indicating the presence of at least two cell populations composed of neurons with dendritic diameters either smaller or larger than 1.8 µm ("thin" or "thick" dendrites, respectively). Three cells (4.5%) were bistratified, having thick dendrites, and the others (95.5%) were monostratified. Using k-means cluster analysis, monostratified cells with either thin or thick dendrites were further subdivided according to level of stratification and number of branching points: cells with thin dendrites were divided into 2 groups with outer stratification (0-40%) and 2 groups with inner (50-100%) stratification, whereas cells with thick dendrites were divided into one group with outer and 3 groups with inner stratification. We postulate, that one group of cells with thin dendrites resembles cat ß-cells, whereas one group of cells with thick dendrites includes cells that resemble cat a-cells.

Division of labor between M and P visual pathways: different visual pathways minimize joint entropy differently

Visual perception and action are strongly linked with parallel processing channels connecting the retina, the lateral geniculate nucleus, and the input layers of the primary visual cortex. Achromatic vision is provided by at least two of such channels formed by the M and P neurons. These cell pathways are similarly organized in primates having different lifestyles, including species that are diurnal, nocturnal, and which exhibit a variety of color vision phenotypes. We describe the M and P cell properties by 3D Gábor functions and their 3D Fourier transform. The M and P cells occupy different loci in the Gábor information diagram or Fourier Space. This separation allows the M and P pathways to transmit visual signals with distinct 6D joint entropy for space, spatial frequency, time, and temporal frequency. By combining the M and P impacts on the cortical neurons beyond V1 input layers, the cortical pathways are able to process aspects of visual stimuli with a better precision than it would be possible using the M or P pathway alone. This performance fulfils the requirements of different behavioral tasks.

A visão através dos contrastes

O primeiro estágio de processamento da informação do estímulo visual consiste na contagem de fótons pelas células fotorreceptoras. Nos estágios pós-receptorais a informação de intensidade absoluta do estímulo é transformada em comparações de informações provindas de áreas adjacentes da retina e momentos sucessivos. Essa métrica implementada pelo sistema visual para quantificar o estímulo é chamada de contraste - contraste espacial ou simultâneo e contraste temporal ou sucessivo. A presença de contraste é essencial para a geração de percepção visual consciente no domínio do espaço e do tempo e em três dimensões ortogonais de cores - branca e preta; azul e amarela; verde e vermelha. Uma curva em forma de sinodelimita os limiares de detecção de contraste em função da frequência especial ou temporal do estímulo. Ela é chamada função de sensibilidade ao contraste e é afetada por uma série de fatores ópticos e neurais. Neurônios de diferentes classes contribuem para regiões diferentes da função de sensibilidade ao contraste e suas atividades representam as ações de vias de processamento visual que se estendem da retina ao córtex visual. Investigações básicas e clínicas têm dado suporte à importância do estudo da sensibilidade ao contraste espacial de luminância (branco e preta) como uma ferramenta indicadora da função visual em sujeitos normais e afetados por disfunções neuro-oftalmológicas.

Lateral interactions in visual perception of temporal signals: cortical and subcortical components

The aim of this work was to isolate and investigate subcortical and cortical lateral interactions involved in flicker perception. We quantified the perceived flicker strength (PFS) in the center of a test stimulus which was simultaneously modulated with a surround stimulus (50% Michelson contrast in both stimuli). Subjects were requested to adjust the modulation depth of a separate matching stimulus that was physically identical to the center of the test stimulus but without the surround. Using LCD goggles, synchronized to the frame rate of a CRT screen, the center and surround could be presented monoptically or dichoptically. In the monoptic condition, center-surround interactions can have both subcortical and cortical origins. In the dichoptic condition, center-surround interactions cannot occur in the retina and the LGN, therefore isolating a cortical mechanism. Results revealed both a strong monoptic (subcortical plus cortical) lateral interaction and a weaker dichoptic (cortical) lateral interaction. Subtraction of the dichoptic from the monoptic data revealed a subcortical mechanism of the lateral interaction. While the modulation of the cortical PFS component showed a low-pass temporal-frequency tuning, the modulation of the subcortical PFS component was maximal at 6 Hz. These findings are consistent with two separate temporal channels influencing the monoptic PFS, each with distinct lateral interactions strength and frequency tuning characteristics. We conclude that both subcortical and cortical lateral interactions modulate flicker perception.

Avaliação da retinopatia hipertensiva através do potencial oscilatório do eletrorretinograma

OBJETIVO: Avaliar o comportamento do potencial oscilatório escotópico do eletrorretinograma de campo total (ERG) na retinopatia hipertensiva. MÉTODOS: Quarenta e quatro pacientes foram submetidos à avaliação clínica e subdivididos em dois grupos: 26 hipertensos (HT) com média de idade de 52,23 ± 5,79 anos divididos em 10 homens (38,46%) e 16 mulheres (61,54%) e 18 normotensos (NT) com média de idade de 51,79 ± 10,23 anos divididos em 5 homens (27,78%) e 13 mulheres (72,22%). Foram incluídos no estudo apenas hipertensos leves a moderados (estágio 1 e 2 respectivamente) sem lesões em outro órgão-alvo.Os pacientes hipertensos foram mantidos sob placebo durante o período do estudo. Em seguida, foram submetidos à avaliação oftalmológica e realização do ERG. O eletrorretinograma de campo total (ERG), com registro das respostas: escotópica, escotópica máxima, PO escotópico, fotópica e "flicker". Para análise da resposta do PO foi considerada a latência dos dois primeiros picos e o valor médio da amplitude dos três picos do complexo de três respostas consecutivas, denominado índice oscilatório (IO). RESULTADOS: A hipertensão arterial acometia 26 (59,1%) dos pacientes, ao passo que 18 (40,9%) eram normotensos. A média do IO obtido foi de 257,41µV no grupo de NT e de 217,81 µV no HT (p=0,006). As médias de latências obtidas para os picos 1 (NT-18,42 ms e HT-17,91 ms) e 2 (NT-24,54 ms e HT- 24,29 ms) não foram diferentes entre os grupos (p>0,05). CONCLUSÃO: Os hipertensos apresentam índice oscilatório significativamente menor que os normotensos, sugerindo que a hipertensão arterial pode ocasionar disfunção da retina interna.

Inibição da atividade da Tirosinase por análogos do ácido Kójico

A tirosinase é uma enzima chave para a biossíntese de melanina. É uma enzima “cobre-dependente” que pode existir em três estados intermediários: desoxi (Cu¹⁺ -Cu¹⁺), oxi (Cu ²⁺ - O² -Cu²⁺) e met (Cu²⁺) - Cu²⁺). Apresenta atividade bifuncional, pois oxida fenóis ou catecóis em seus o-difenóis correspondentes, sendo que o processo de oxidação de fenóis pode ser descrito por cinética de Michaelis-Menten. Distúrbios na tirosinase estão associados com hiperpigmentação e escurecimento enzimático de frutas e fungos. Assim a busca por substâncias de origem natural ou sintética capazes de regular o comportamento desta enzima é fator chave para o tratamento de tais desordens. Nesta perspectiva, no presente trabalho buscou-se analisar bioquimicamente a atividade anti-tirosinase de análogos do ácido kójico derivados de 4H- pironas (S-01, S-02, S-03 e S-04) e derivados de diidropirano [3, 2-b] cromenodionas (S-05, S-06, S-07 e S-08), quimicamente planejadas por modelagem molecular no LPDF, do ICEN da UFPA. A cinética das substâncias S-02, S-04, S-06, S-07 e S-08 apresentaram inibição do tipo competitiva, semelhante ao padrão de inibição do ácido kójico, com valores de Ki de 145,0 ± 20,0 μM; 64,0 ± 10,0 μM; 4,0 ± 0,0 μM; 6,0 ± 0,0 μM; 9,0 ± 0,0 μM, respectivamente, e de 5,0 ± 0,0 μM para o ácido kójico, enquanto a substância S-01 apresentou uma inibição do tipo mista (Ki = 999,0 ± 150,0 μM). Já as substâncias S-03 e S-05 não apresentaram atividade inibitória. As substâncias testadas demonstraram alto grau de segurança tanto na integridade de membrana de eritrócitos em teste de hemólise, quanto na viabilidade em teste com MTT em culturas de fibroblasto MRC5, em cultura de células nervosas de retina de embrião de galinha e em melanoma B16F10. Assim, demonstrou-se que as substâncias S-02, S-04, S-06, S-07 e S-08 apresentam atividade como potentes inibidores de tirosinase, podendo ser candidatos no tratamento de desordens de pigmentação.

Cytogenetics of the Brazilian Bolitoglossa paraensis (Unterstein, 1930) salamanders (Caudata, Plethodontidae)

Plethodontid salamanders of genus Bolitoglossa constitute the largest and most diverse group of salamanders, including around 20% of living caudate species. Recent studies have indicated the occurrence of five recognized species in the Brazilian Amazon Rainforest. We present here the first cytogenetic data of a Brazilian salamander, which may prove to be a useful by contribution to the cytotaxonomy of the genus. Specimens were collected near the “type” locality (Utinga, Belém, PA, Brazil). Chromosomal preparations from duodenal epithelial cells and testes were subjected to Giemsa staining, C-banding and DAPI/CMA₃ fluorochrome staining. All specimens showed a karyotype with 13 bi-armed chromosome pairs (2n = 26). Nucleolar Organizer Regions, evidenced by CMA₃, were located distally on the long arm of pair 7 (7q). DAPI₊ heterochromatin was predominantly centromeric, with some small pericentromeric bands. Although the C-banding patterns of other Bolitoglossa species are so far unknown, cytogenetic studies conducted in other Plethodontid salamanders have demonstrated that pericentromeric heterochromatin is a useful cytological marker for identifying interspecific homeologies. Species diversification is usually accompanied by chromosomal changes. Therefore, the cytogenetic characterization of Bolitoglossa populations from the middle and western Brazilian Amazon Basin could identify differences which may lead to the identification of new species.

Relação entre a biometria ultra-sonográfica em modo B do bulbo ocular e os diâmetros fronto occiptal e bizigomático em Canis familiaris

Avaliou-se 31 cães saudáveis, sem raça definida, sendo 10 machos e 21 fêmeas, com 8 meses a 7 anos de idade e peso de1,5-28 kg. Inicialmente foram mensurados os diâmetros fronto-occiptal (DFO) e bizigomático (DBZ) do crânio com o auxílio de um paquímetro. A ultra-sonografia transpalpebral em modo-B foi realizada para mensurar as estruturas do bulbo ocular, conforme se segue: D1- espessura da córnea; D2- distância entre o ponto central da imagem da córnea e a da cápsula anterior do cristalino (câmara anterior); D3- distância entre o ponto central da imagem da córnea e a da cápsula posterior do cristalino; D4- espessura do cristalino, que corresponde a distância entre a imagem da cápsula anterior e a cápsula posterior do cristalino; D5- diâmetro do cristalino, distância entre as imagens dos pólos do cristalino; D6– área do cristalino; D7- câmara vítrea, distância entre a imagem da cápsula posterior do cristalino e a retina; D8- distância entre a cápsula anterior do cristalino e a retina; D9- distância entre a imagem da córnea e a retina. Com exceção da D4, houve efeito dos DFO e DBZ sobre as medidas das estruturas internas do BO. A análise de regressão linear entre as medidas das estruturas do bulbo ocular e os DFO e DBZ foram significativas para D1, D2, D3, D4, D5, D6, D7, D8 e D9.

Avaliação ultrassonográfica do bulbo ocular em cães submetidos à facoemulsificação com ou sem implante de lente intraocular

This study aimed to describe and compare the ultrasonographic alterations in dogs' eyes submitted to facectomy with or without intraocular lens implant (IOL), to assist in the diagnosis of possible alterations related to the surgical procedure and IOL implantation. Nineteen dogs with cataract (21 eyes) were submitted to phacoemulsification and late postoperative evaluation (at five years). The animals were initially submitted to complete ophthalmological exams which preceded the sonogram. Dogs were divided in three groups: (CA) aphakic dogs (n= 11); (PP) pseudophakic dogs with implantation of two IOLs in piggyback (n=5) and (PL) pseudophakic dogs with implantation of a veterinary IOL (n = 5). The ultrasound was carried under the administration of a topic local anesthetic, with a multi frequency linear transducer of 10 MHz. Biometric eye measurements were also performed. The clinical alterations observed were IOL dislocation, retinal detachment, asteroid hyalosis, and vitreous degeneration. Ultrasound examination was an excellent diagnostic tool, as it was possible to confirm and classify these changes. The piggyback implant reduced the measurements between the ciliary body and the vitreous chamber obtained from the ocular biometry when compared to other usual procedures, with no difference between the axial length and the anterior chamber.

Parâmetros oftálmicos em diferentes espécies de cervídeos brasileiros mantidos em cativeiro

Pós-graduação em Cirurgia Veterinária - FCAV

Sildenafil citrate on retrobulbar and retinal circulation of rabbits

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Phosphorus reduction by sifting fish waste meal

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Ivabradine: Just another New Pharmacological Option for Heart Rate Control?

Ivabradine (IVB) is a heart rate lowering agent that acts via selective inhibition of the pacemaker funny current in sinoatrial nodal P cells, thus, reducing heart rate at rest and during exercise with minimal effect on myocardial contractility, blood pressure, and intracardiac conduction. IVB exerts no effect on external respiratory function parameters and it may also play a role in patients with concurrent chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. This property constitutes an important advantage over β-blockers. IVB acts by reducing the heart rate in a mechanism different from β-blockers, calcium channel blockers or late sodium channel blockers, three commonly prescribed antianginal drugs. As clinical trials have shown, it is remarkably well-tolerated and offers an alternative for patients who cannot take β-blockers. The combination of IVB and atenolol at commonly used doses in patients with chronic stable angina produced additional efficacy with no untoward effect on safety or tolerability. Additionally, side effects are rare and largely limited to a luminous phenomenon or phosphenes. This sensation is thought to be due to a block of Ih in the retina, a current very similar to cardiac If channels. IVB is contraindicated in patients with sick sinus syndrome or sinus node dysfunction and in patients taking hepatic inhibitors of Cytochrome P450 family 3, subfamily A, polypeptide 4 (abbreviated CYP3A4), with exception of omeprazole or lansoprazole. This review briefly summarizes the main studies regarding this drug.

THE RETINAL TARGETS OF CENTRIFUGAL NEURONS AND THE RETINAL NEURONS PROJECTING TO THE ACCESSORY OPTIC-SYSTEM

In birds, neurons of the isthmo-optic nucleus (ION), as well as ''ectopic'' neurons, send axons to the retina, where they synapse on cells in the inner nuclear layer (INL). Previous work has shown that centrifugal axons can be divided into two anatomically distinct types depending on their mode of termination: either ''convergent'' or ''divergent'' (Ramon y Cajal, 1889; Maturana and Frenk, 1965). We show that cytochrome-oxidase histochemistry specifically labels ''convergent'' centrifugal axons and target neurons which appear to be amacrine cells, as well as three ''types'' of ganglion cells: two types found in the INL (displaced ganglion cells) and one in the ganglion cell layer. Labeled target amacrine cells have distinct darkly labeled ''nests'' of boutons enveloping the somas, are associated with labeled centrifugal fibers, and are confined to central retina. Lesions of the isthmo-optic tract abolish the cytochrome-oxidase labeling in the centrifugal axons and in the target amacrine cells but not in the ganglion cells. Cytochromeoxidase-labeled ganglion cells in the INL are large; one type is oval and similar to the classical displaced ganglion cells of Dogiel, which have been reported to receive centrifugal input; the other type is rounder. Rhodamine beads injected into the accessory optic system results in retrograde label in both types of cells, showing that two distinct types of displaced ganglion cells project to the accessory optic system in chickens. The ganglion cells in the ganglion cell layer that label for cytochrome oxidase also project to the accessory optic system. These have proximal dendrites that ramify in the outer inner plexiform layer. Neither the target amacrine cells nor either of the displaced ganglion cells are immunoreactive for the inhibitory transmitter gamma aminobutyric acid. At least some of the target amacrine cells may, however, be cholinoceptive: we found that the antibody to the alpha-7 subunit of the nicotinic ACh receptor labels a population of cells in the INL that are similar in location, size, and the presence of labeled bouton-like structures to those we find labeled with cytochrome oxidase. This antibody also labels neurons in the ION proper but not ectopic cells. In conclusion, it appears that cytochrome oxidase may be a marker for ''convergent'' centrifugal axons and at least one of their target cells in the INL.

Ótica e a visão humana

Optics consists in the study of interaction of light with physical systems. The human vision is a product of the interaction of light with the eye (a very peculiar physical system). Here we present a basic study of the relationship between the optics and human vision, including: - The fundaments and physicals properties who characterize the light and the colors and the characteristics of the incidence mediums. - The basics laws of geometrical optics, based in the rectilinear propagation of light in the form of a light ray, in the independence of light rays and in the principle of reversibility of the light beams. This principle is present in the process of image formations in lenses and mirrors and applied in the study of image formation in the human eye. - The refraction and reflection laws and types of lenses, who permits the construction of optics devices for the study of physical universe, and the appliances to correct vision diseases. - Presents the human vision process as consisting in the reception of light (electromagnetic radiation in the zone of wavelength visible to us) through the eye and the sending of information obtained by the retina to the brain where it is interpreted. The vision involves a biophysical relation between the light and the biological structure of the eye who is constituted by cornea, iris, crystalline and retina. Analyzes is made of how some parts of the eye performs a function in the reception and sending of information of the images to the brain